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ECONOMIC 
GEOGRAPHY 


^.A>-'V^'^ 


BY 


JOHN    McFARLANE 


\  ) 


M.A.,    M.Com. 


LECTURER  IN   GEOGRAPHY   IN  THE  UNIVERSITY   OF 
MANCHESTER 


London 

Sir  Isaac  Pitman  &  Sons,  Ltd.,  1  Amen  Corner,  E.G. 

Bath,  New  York  and  Melbourne 


PREFACE 

The  development  of  the  theory  of  natural  regions  is  an  indication 
of  the  rapid  progress  which  the  study  of  Geography  has  made  in 
this  country  within  recent  years.  The  substitution  of  geographical 
for  political  units  has  not  only  imparted  a  new  interest  to  the 
subject,  but  has  given  to  it  a  new  value.  On  the  one  hand,  the 
gain  to  the  student  has  been  considerable.  In  the  words  of  Pro- 
fessor Herbertson,  to  whom  the  whole  theory  owes  so  much,  "  not 
merely  is  time  saved,  but  a  more  accurate  knowledge  of  the  world 
is  gained,  the  memory  is  not  burdened  by  such  a  plethora  of  place- 
names,  the  pupils  can  tell  something  of  the  shape  of  the  lands,  and 
of  the  circumstances  of  life  in  different  parts  of  the  Earth."  On 
the  other  hand,  the  economist  and  the  statesman  may  both 
benefit  by  a  method  which  enables  them  to  distinguish  from  one 
another  regions  in  which  the  nature  of  the  geographic  control  is 
essentially  different. 

Logically,  no  doubt,  the  theory  of  natural  regions  implies  the 
treatment  of  the  earth's  surface  quite  independently  of  the  political 
boundaries  which  may  be  traced  upon  it.  But  in  Economic 
Geography,  at  least,  there  are  certain  reasons  why  such  a  course 
cannot  be  adopted.  The  economic  development  of  a  country  is 
affected  not  only  by  the  nature  of  the  geographic  control,  but  also 
by  the  political  conditions  which  prevail.  National  boundaries 
cannot  be  ignored  without,  to  some  extent,  losing  sight  of  the 
interaction  which  takes  place  between  man  and  his  environment. 
In  the  following  pages,  therefore,  I  have  endeavoured  to  divide 
the  countries  of  the  world  into  natural  regions  and  to  trace  the 
influence  of  the  geographical  conditions  of  each  upon  the  economic 
life  of  man  within  it.  In  some  cases  these  regions  are  already 
well  recognised ;  in  others  I  have  essayed  a  division,  more  or  less 
tentative,  of  my  own.  But  I  have  always  been  guided  by  what 
I  conceive  to  be  the  necessity  of  taking  all  the  geographicsd  factors 
into,  consideration.  The  true  natural  region  is  a  unit — physically, 
chmatically,  and  biologically  ;  and  the  ultimate  task  of  the  geogra- 
pher is  the  recognition,  classification,  and  e^camination  of  such  units. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  individual  members  of  a  group  of  units 


Vl  PREFACE 

are  frequently  so  closely  allied  to  one  another  by  the  dominating 
influence  of  one  or  more  of  the  geographical  factors,  that  in  a 
general  review  of  economic  conditions  they  may  be  treated  as 
together  forming  one  natural  region. 

I  have  placed  at  the  end  of  this  book  a  list  of  the  works  to  which 
I  am  mainly  indebted.  Mr.  Chisholm's  Handbook  of  Commercial 
Geography  must  be  mentioned  here.  To  it  I  am  under  a  deep 
sense  of  obligation,  as  at  every  stage  of  my  work  it  has  been  of 
the  greatest  assistance  to  me. 

I  have  to  express  my  thanks  to  the  Oxford  University  Press  for 
permission  to  reproduce  their  rainfall  maps,  which,  I  believe,  will 
prove  of  value  to  students.  Professor  J.  W.  Gregory  very 
kindly  allowed  me  to  make  use  of  his  map  showing  the  geographical 
divisions  of  AustraHa. 

Practically  the  whole  of  the  book  was  read  in  proof  by  Dr.  R.  N. 
Rudmose  Brown,  of  Sheffield  University.  My  warmest  thanks  are 
due  to  him  for  much  careful  work  and  many  valuable  suggestions. 
In  the  compilation  of  statistics,  in  the  correction  of  proofs,  and  in 
a  number  of  other  ways,  great  assistance  has  been  given  me  by 
my  wife. 

J.  McF. 


CONTENTS 


I. 

JC'iX.C.VAK^r.                    ....... 

PHYSICAL   CONDITIONS   OF   ECONOMIC   ACTIVITY 

II. 

CLIMATE 

. 

III. 

VEGETATION          .... 

IV. 

EUROPE       

V. 

THE   UNITED   KINGDOM^     . 

VI. 

SCANDINAVIA      X 

VII. 

FRANCE       .            )^          .             . 

VIII. 

BELGIUM^.            y 

IX. 

HOLLAND  -.             >-          . 

X. 

GERMANY  .             .y-          .             . 

XI. 

DENMARK  .<-... 

XII. 

SWITZERLAND       .     C      . 

XIII. 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY      ^. 

XIV. 

ROUMANIA               .             V 

XV. 

THE   BALKAN   STATES   . 

XVI. 

ITALY            ..-/:. 

XVII. 

THE   IBERIAN   PENINSULA    i\ 

XVIII. 

RUSSIA         .             .             .           0     *^ 

XIX. 

ASIA              .... 

XX. 

ASIATIC   RUSSIA  . 

XXI. 

ASIATIC  TURKEY  AND   ARABIA 

XXII. 

PERSIA  AND   AFGHANISTAN   . 

I)(   XXIII. 

INDIA   AND   CEYLON      l^ 

XXIV. 

INDO-CHINA    \  . 

XXV. 

THE   CHINESE   EMPIRE 

XXVI. 

JAPAN           .... 

XXVII. 

THE   MALAY   ARCHIPELAGO     . 

XXVIII. 

AFRICA        .... 

XXIX. 

MEDITERRANEAN   STATES        . 

XXX. 

THE   BASIN   OF  THE   NILE       . 

XXXI. 

EAST  AFRICA 

XXXII. 

SOUTH  AFRICA     . 

XXXIII. 

WEST  AFRICA       . 

Vlll 


CONTENTS 


CHAP. 

XXXIV. 

ISLANDS  LYING  OFF  THE  COAST  OF  AFRICA      . 

XXXV. 

NORTH   AMERICA 

XXXVI. 

CANADA       . 

XXXVII. 

UNITED   STATES 

XXXVIII. 

MEXICO       . 

XXXIX. 

CENTRAL  AMERICA 

XL. 

THE  WEST  INDIES 

XLI. 

SOUTH   AMERICA 

XLII. 

THE   CORDILLERAN   STATES 

XLIII. 

BRAZIL 

XLIV. 

PARAGUAY  AND   URUGUAY 

XLV. 

THE  ARGENTINE   REPUBLIC 

XLVI. 

AUSTRALIA 

XL  VII. 

NEW  ZEALAND     . 

LIST  OF   WORKS  CONSULTED 

INDEX        .            . 

LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS 


RAINFALL  OF  EUROPE 

THE   BRITISH   ISLES 
NATURAL  REGIONS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN 

„  „  FRANCE     . 

„  „  GERMANY 

RAINFALL   OF  ASIA       .  .  . 

NATURAL  REGIONS   OF   SIBERIA     . 

„  ,,  INDIA 

RAINFALL  OF  AFRICA  .  .  . 

NORTH  AMERICA      . 
NATURAL  REGIONS   OF  CANADA     . 

„  ^  „  THE   UNITED   STATES 

RAINFALL  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA      . 
NATURAL  REGIONS  OF  BRAZIL       . 

THE   ARGENTINE 
RAINFALL  OF  AUSTRALIA     . 
THE   MAIN   GEOGRAPHICAL  DIVISIONS  OF  AUSTRALIA 
NATURAL  REGIONS   OF  NEW  ZEALAND  . 


ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 


CHAPTER   I 

PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS   OF  ECONOMIC   ACTIVITY 

Economic  Geography  may  be  defined  as  the  study  of  the  influence 
exerted  upon  the  economic  activities  of  man  by  his  physical  en- 
yironmejit,  and  more  especially  by  the  form  and  structure  of  the 
surface  of  the  land,  the  climatic  conditions  which  prevail  upon  it, 
and  the  place  relations  in  which  its  different  regions  stand  to 
one  another.  These  physical  factors,  it  is  true,  do  not  determine 
absolutely  the  character  of  economic  life,  but  they  exercise  a 
control  over  it  which  is  more  apparent,  no  doubt,  in  the  earlier 
•stages  of  human  history,  but  which  is  no  less  real  in  advanced 
civiHsations  when  man  has  learned  to  respond  to  his  environment 
and  to  obtain  from  it  an  increased  benefit. 

In  order  to  pursue  a  study  of  the  character  here  indicated,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  recourse  to  much  information  derived  from 
other  sciences.  An  appeal  must  be  made  to  the  geologist  and 
geomorphologist  for  many  facts  regarding  the  structure  and  forma- 
tion of  the  surface  of  the  earth ;  from  the  metallurgist  and  the 
mining  engineer  must  be  obtained  some  knowledge  of  the  value  of 
minerals  and  fuels  accessible  to  man  ;  the  general  principles 
determining  climate  must  be  accepted  from  the  meteorologist; 
while  the  botanist  and  the  agricultural  chemist  must  supply  the 
necessary  information  regarding  plant  life.  To  the  economic 
geographer  belongs  the  task  of  correlating  these  different  facts  and 
estimating  their  influence  upon  human  activity.  In  the  first 
place  he  has  to  show,  among  other  things,  how  the  distribution 
of  soil  and  minerals  is  affected  by  the  physical  structure  of  the 
earth ;  how  climate  varies  with  position  and  configuration ;  and 
how  vegetation  is  determined  by  climatic  and  edaphic  environ- 
ment. iSecondly,  he  has  to  consider  the  extent  to  which  man  in 
his  economic  aspect  is  controlled  by  these  various  factors,  and 


2       .'' \ :  t'  :  ,*'  *   -    :  fecQ>:osiio  geography 

how  far  he  is  able  to  free  himself  from  their  control  and  consciously 
to  adapt  himself  to  his  environment. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  is  obvious  that  some  knowledge  is 
necessary,  not  only  of  the  actual  configuration  of  the  surface  of  the 
land,  but  of  the  rocks  of  which  it  is  composed,  and  even  of  the 
morphological  processes  by  which  its  present  form  has  been  deter- 
mined. The  minerals  which  the  rocks  contain,  "t^e  soils  into  which 
they  weather  down,  and  the  different  types  of  land  form  which  , 
they  constitute,  each  with  its  own  potentiaHties  for  settlement  ( 
and  development,  must  all  be  taken  into  consideration.  / 

Rocks  may  be  classified  as  igneous,  sedimentary,  and  metamor- 
phic.  Igneous  rocks  have  been  formed  by  the  cooling  and  solidi- 
fication of  molten  matter,  and,  while  some  may  have  formed  part 
of  the  original  surface  of  the  earth,  others  belong  to  more  recent 
times,  as  is  testified  by  their  occurrence  among  the  sedimentary 
strata.  The  latter  have  been  formed  by  the  deposition  or  pre- 
cipitation of  matter  derived  from  pre-existing  rocks  ;  they  include 
conglomerates,  sandstones,  limestones,  and  shales.  Metamorphic 
rocks  are  derived  from  igneous  or  sedimentary  rocks,  which,  owing 
to  great  pressure,  heat,  or  other  causes,  have  entirely  lost  their 
original  characteristics.  Marble,  for  example,  is  limestone  which 
has  been  metamorphosed  by  heat. 

The  oldest  known  rocks  are  called  Archaean,  a  term  which, 
although  it  is  now  being  restricted  to  the  earliest  formations,  has 
hitherto  been  applied  to  all  of  pre-Cambrian  times.  These  rocks 
vary  in  structure,  the  oldest  consisting  of  schists  and  granites,  while 
the  more  recent  are  of  metamorphosed  and  in  places  of  unaltered 
sedimentary  material.  They  weather  slowly  and  frequently  have  , 
but  a  scanty  covering  of  soil.  On  the  other  hand,  they  sometimes  V 
contain  great  mineral  wealth,  as  in  North  America,  where  the 
richest  iron  ores  of  the  continent  are  found  within  the  Archaean 
area.  In  some  regions,  also,  and  more  especially  where  there  are 
intrusive  igneous  rocks,  valuable  deposits  of  the  precious  metals 
occur. 

The  Palaeozoic  rocks  are  of  sedimentary  origin  (though  they 
have  also  been  subject  in  numerous  instances  to  metamorphic 
action),  and  contain  great  deposits  of  minerals  of  economic  value. 
In  the  Cambrian  rocks  of  North  America  gold  is  found,  while  in 
the  lower  Silurian  strata  of  the  same  continent  there  are  large 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS   OF  ECONOMIC  ACTIVITY  3 

quantities  of  oil  and  natural  gas,  both  of' which  are  believed  to  be 
due  to  organic  matter  included  in  the  rocks  at  the  time  of  their 
deposition.  Where  the  metamorphosed  Devonian  rock  of  Europe 
is  in  contact  with  intrusive  igneous  rocks,  iron,  tin,  and  copper  are 
frequently  found.  The  Carboniferous  period  saw  the  deposition 
of  the  great  coal  measures  of  the  world.  In  the  lower  Carboniferous 
rocks  of  Scotland  and  of  Russia,  coal  is  found  ;  but  it  is  in  the  upper 
Carboniferous  formations  that  the  more  important  coalfields  of 
Europe  and  eastern  North  America  occur.  Iron  is  also  frequently 
present  in  the  same  formations.  The  Permian  beds  in  many 
parts  of  the  world  contain  large  deposits  of  salt ;  the  upper  Permian, 
for  example,  contain  the  thickest  layers  of  that  mineral  in  Europe, 
Copper  and  coal  are  sometimes  also  found. 

The  Mesozoic  or  Secondary  strata  (Triassic,  Jurassic,  and  Cretace- 
ous) are  less  valuable  on  the  whole  with  regard  to  the  economJc 
minerals  which  they  contain,  but  more  valuable  in  respect  of  the 
soils  into  which  they  weather.  In  the  Triassic  rocks,  coal  and 
salt  are  found  in  different  parts  of  the  world.  The  metamorphosed 
Jurassic  rocks  of  California  are  gold-bearing,  while  the  unaltered 
Jurassic  formations,  outside  of  North  America,  contain  more  coal 
than  any  other  formation  except  the  Carboniferous.  In  North 
America,  on  the  other  hand,  the  Cretaceous  regions  of  the  west 
are  the  most  productive  in  coal,  and  contain  large  supplies  of  a 
lignitic  character.  Iron  is  found  in  the  Jurassic  oolites  of  England 
and  Europe. 

The  Cainozoic  era  is  divided  into  the  Tertiary  and  Quaternary 
periods.  During  the  first  of  these,  important  changes  took  place  in 
the  form  of  the  land  and  the  great  mountain  ranges  of  the  globe 
were  upraised.  Volcanic  outpourings  on  a  large  scale  also  occurred 
in  different  parts  of  the  world  at  this  time.  The  mineral  wealth  of 
the  sedimentary  rocks  formed  during  the  Tertiary  period  is  not 
very  great,  but  coal  is  found  in  those  of  Washington  and 
Alaska,  in  parts  of  Europe,  and  in  Japan.  Oil  occurs  in  similar 
formations  in  Europe  and  North  America,  and  amber  in  North 
Germany.  The  Quaternary  period  is  of  most  importance  in 
relation  to  the  influence  upon  soil  of  the  ice-sheet  whichjextended 
over  considerable  areas  of  Europe  and  North  America.  This  will 
be  discussed  later. 

The  above  account  of  the  distribution  of  economic  minerals  in 


4  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

rocks  of  different  geological  periods  must  not  be  considered  as 
exhaustive,  and  numerous  other  instances  will  be  referred  to  in  the 
course  of  the  present  work.  It  is  essential,  however,  that  the 
student  should  from  the  beginning  realise  the  importance  of  the 
)  geological  factor  in  economic  geography,  and  it  is  for  this  reason 
that  these  illustrations  have  been  given. 

The  physical  and  chemical  properties  of  the  soil  vary 
according  to  the  composition  of  the  rocks  from  which  they  are 
derived,  and  these  variations  affect  its  fertility  and  suitability  for 
vegetation.  On  the  whole,  crystalline  rocks  such  as  gneiss  do  not 
provide  a  suitable  environment  for  plant  life.  The  soils  derived 
from  them  are  often  thin,  as  they  weather  slowly,  and  they  are 
usually  wanting  in  lime  and  other  constituents  of  fertility. 
Granites,  also,  though  rich  in  phosphates,  are  often  poor  in 
lime,  and  do  not,  as  a  rule,  form  a  fertile  soil.  On  the  other  hand, 
some  eruptive  rocks  are  very  productive,  as  they  may  contain 
both  lime  and  phosphates,  and  are  at  the  same  time  retentive  of 
moisture.  Basalt,  for  example,  often  weathers  freely,  and  responds 
;  readily  to  good  cultivation.  Of  the  soils  formed  from  sedimentary 
rocks  those  derived  from  limestone  are  generally  fertile,  as  potash 
L  is  in  many  cases  present  in  addition  to  lime.  That  "  a  limestone 
country  is  a  rich  country  "  may  be  illustrated  by  reference  to  the 
blue-grass  region  of  Kentucky ;  but  in  some  districts,  more 
especially  in  upland  regions,  the  soil  is  very  thin  and  cultivation 
is  impossible.  Sandstone  soils  vary  greatly  in  character.  Much 
depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  cementing  material  which  holds 
the  grains  of  sandstone  together.  If  it  happens  to  be  lime,  the  soil 
may  be  fertile,  but,  if  lime  is  absent  and  the  cementing  material 
i^  is  siliceous,  the  sandstone  will  disintegrate  into  a  poor  and  infertile 
(  soil.  On  the  Bunter  Sandstone  of  Germany  a  forest  vegetation  alone 
is  possible,  while  some  of  the  richest  soils  of  Great  Britain  are  upon 
the  Old  Red  Sandstone.  The  intermixture  of  the  debris  of  different 
kinds  of  rock  frequently  leads  to  a  soil  of  great  fertility.  Thus  the 
alluvial  soils  deposited  by  rivers  on  their  flood  plains,  and  at  their 
deltas,  are  often  among  the  most  productive.  Many  glacial  soils 
are  fertile  for  the  same  reason,  though  it  must  not  be  assumed 
that  all  are  so.  Much  depends  upon  the  source  from  which  the 
rock  waste  comes,  and  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  deposited. 
A  knowledge  of  the  morphological  processes  determining  tb 


1 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS   OF   ECONOMIC   ACTIVITY  5 

physical  evolution  of  a  region  frequently -throws  much  light  upon 
its  economic  development.  The  folded  mountain  ranges  of  the 
world  are  generally  higher  than  its  dissected  plateaus,  their  geolog- 
ical structure  and  river  systems  are  different,  and  they  exercise 
an  influence  pecuharly  their  own  upon  human  progress.  Plains 
of  accumulation,  again,  are  not  the  same  as  plains  of  denudation. 
In  the  one  the  strata  are  generally  weak  and  unconsolidated,  and 
minerals  are  usually,  though  not  always,  wanting ;  in  the  othei 
the  rocks  are  hard  and  consolidated,  and  great  mineral  wealth 
may  exist.  The  plain  of  Western  Siberia  is  an  example  of  the 
first  type,  and  that  of  Central  Russia  of  the  second.  The  value  of 
rivers  to  man  varies  with  the  stage  of  development  at  which  they 
have  arrived.  A  river  in  early  youth,  descending  from  a  mountain 
range,  is  generally  useless  for  navigation,  though  it  may  be  pro- 
ductive of  much  water-power.  On  the  other  hand,  a  river  which  has 
reached  maturity,  such  as  the  Lower  Mississippi,  is  navigable, 
but  is  without  surplus  energy.  A  transverse  valley  again  tends  to 
be  narrow  and  to  have  steep  sides,  while  a  longitudinal  valley  is 
broad  and  suitable  for  settlement.  Changes  in  the  relative  level 
of  land  and  sea  have  had  important  economic  results.  When  the 
land  has  sunk  relatively  to  the  sea,  river  mouths  have  often  been 
drowned,  and  good  harbours  formed,  as  was  the  case  along  the 
coast  of  New  England.  Further  south,  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard, 
the  land  has  risen,  and  good  harbours  are  few  and  far  between.  The 
processes  which  led  to  the  formation  of  the  continental  shelf,  upon 
which  the  British  Isles  stand,  account  for  the  fishing  industry  of 
these  islands,  and  for  the  high  tides  which  have  played  so  important 
a  part  in  the  development  of  their  ports. 

Many  other  instances  of  the  importance  of  a  knowledge  of 
morphological  structure  might  be  adduced,  but  these  will  suffice  to 
show  that  in  order  to  understand  the  present  it  is  frequently  necessary 
to  appeal  to  the  past. 


CHAPTER   II 

CLIMATE 

In  order  to  understand  correctly  the  geographical  conditions 
which  have  controlled  the  economic  development  of  different 
parts  of  the  world,  the  factors  which  determine  climate  must  be 
carefully  studied.  For  climatic  conditions  are  of  the  greatest  L^ 
importance  in  explaining  alike  the  dense  population  of  the  monsoon 
countries  and  the  scattered  tribes  of  the  desert,  the  higher  civilisa- 
tion of  temperate  lands  and  the  lower  development  of  tropical 
regions. 

The  chief  factors  which  control  the  climate  of  any  region  are  its 
latitude,  its  altitude,  and  its  position  with  regard  to  the  various 
land  and  water  masses  of  the  globe.  The  effect  of  each  of 
these  may  best  be  observed  by  beginning  with  an  extremely 
hypothetical  case,  and  by  gradually  introducing  the  various 
modifications  necessary  to  bring  it  into  accordance  with  actual  facts. 

If  the  sun  were  constantly  above  the  equator,  if  the  surface 
of  the  earth  consisted  entirely  of  land,  and  if  there  were 
no  atmosphere,  it  is  obvious  that  the  temperature  of  the  globe 
would  be  greatest  at  the  equator  where  the  sun  would  be  directly 
overhead  each  day  throughout  the  year ;  it  would  gradually 
become  less  in  higher  latitudes,  owing  to  the  greater  obhquity  of  the 
solar  rays  ;  and  it  would  be  at  a  minimum  at  the  poles  where  the  sun 
would  constantly  appear  on  the  horizon.  In  these  circumstances  the 
temperature  of  any  place,  and  therefore  its  climate,  would  depend 
upon  its  latitude  and  upon  that  only.  As  the  sun  does  not  remain 
constantly  above  the  equator,  however,  but  alternately  "moves" 
each  year  to  about  23J°  on  either  side  of  it,  a  disturbing  element 
is  introduced,  since  the  increasing  length  of  day  caused  thereby 
towards  each  pole  in  turn  more  than  compensates,  in  higher  lati- 
tudes, for  the  decreased  amount  of  insolation  caused  by  the  sim's 
rays  making  an  oblique  angle  with  the  surface  of  the  earth.  To 
such  an  extent  would  this  be  the  case,  indeed,  that  at  the  summer  ^ 
solstice  the  north  pole  would  receive  in  twenty-four  hours  not  only  a 
greater  amount  of  insolation  than  the  equator  would  receive 

6 


I  at  M 
Jk 


CLIMATE  / 

that  time,  but  a  greater  amount  than  the  equator  could  receive  in 
twenty-four  hours  at  any  season  of  the  year.  Under  these  cir- 
cumstances the  distribution  of  temperature  over  the  globe  would 
be  more  complex,  but  it  would  still  be  broadly  true  to  assume  that 
the  amount  of  insolation  received  by  the  earth  in  the  course  of  a  year 
would  diminish  from  a  maximum  at  the  equator  to  a  minimum  at  the 
poles,  though  that  minimum  would  no  longer  be  zero  as  in  the 
previous  case. 

The  introduction  of  the  atmosphere  affects  the  problem  in  several 
ways.  In  the  first  place  the  decrease  in  temperature  from  the 
equator  towards  the  poles  becomes  more  marked.  Much  of  the 
radiant  energy  of  the  solar  rays  is  absorbed  by  the  atmosphere  and 
by  the  water  vapour  and  dust  which  it  contains,  and  this  absorption 
necessarily  increases  with  latitude  on  account  of  the  greater  obliquity 
of  the  sun's  rays  and  the  longer  path  which  they  have  consequently 
to  traverse  through  the  earth's  atmosphere. 

The  circulation  of  the  atmosphere  must  next  be  considered. 
In  the  accompanying  diagram  let  A  B  represent  a  portion  of  the 
earth,  and  C  D  a  horizontal  plane  some  distance  above  it.  The 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  as  indicated  by  the  barometer  at  any 
point  in  A  B,  is  x,  and  at  any  point  in  C  D,  xf  and,  as  pressure 
decreases  with  altitude,  x'  is  obviously  less  than  x.  Let  S  be  the 
region  of  greatest  insolation. 


The  air  over  S  becomes  heated  to  a  greater  extent  than  elsewhere, 
partly  by  the  direct  action  of  the  sun's  rays,  and  partly  by  the 
radiation  from  the  earth  of  the  heat  obtained  from  the  sun,  and  as 
a  result  it  expands.  For  example,  the  air  which  formerly  occupied 
the  column  abed  now  occupies  the  column  a  b  c'  d'  and  the 
pressure  at  S''  now  equals  the  former  pressure  at  S'  viz.,  x  .     But 


8  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 


m 


the  pressure  towards  C'  and  D'  in  the  horizontal  plane  C'  D' 
is  less  than  x',  which  is  the  pressure  on  the  horizontal  plane  C  D 
towards  C  and  D  where  conditions  have  not  altered.  Therefore 
the  pressure  at  S^'is  greater  than  it  is  towards  C  and  D'.  But,  if  in  a 
fluid  acted  upon  by  an  external  force,  such  as  gravity,  the  pressure 
is  not  the  same  in  all  parts  of  the  same  horizontal  plane,  a  move- 
ment takes  place  from  the  area  of  high  pressure  to  that  of  low 
pressure  and  continues  until  equilibrium  is  restored.  Hence  the  air 
flows  outwards  from  the  region  round  S'''  towards  C  and  D',  thus 
reducing  the  pressure  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  around  S  where 
it  now  becomes  less  than  x,  and  increasing  it  towards  A  and  B, 
where  it  becomes  greater  than  x.  Accordingly,  the  air  moves 
inward  along  the  surface  of  the  earth  from  the  high-pressure  regions 
around  A  and  B  towards  the  low  pressure  region  about  S.  Thus 
a  regular  system  of  convection  currents  is  established,  as  is  indicated 
by  the  arrows  in  the  diagram. 

When  the  principles  in  the  foregoing  paragraph  are  considered 
with  regard  to  the  general  distribution  of  temperature  prevailing 
over  the  earth  as  a  whole,  it  is  seen  that  there  is  a  belt  of  low  j 
pressure  at  the  equator,  where  the  air,  being  heated,  expands ; 
and  flows  outwards  towards  the  poles.  The  flow  is,  however,  not 
due  north  and  south  as  might  be  expected.  On  account  of  the 
rotation  and  shape  of  the  earth,  every  free  moving  body  tends  in 
the  northern  hemisphere  to  turn  to  the  right  of  its  direction  of 
motion,  and  in  the  southern  hemisphere  to  the  left.  Thus  the  air 
which  flows  out  aloft,  from  above  the  equatorial  low  pressure 
area,  moves  towards  the  north-east  in  the  northern  hemisphere  and 
towards  the  south-east  in  the  southern,  and  becomes  heaped  up 
between  latitudes  30°  and  35°  on  either  side  of  the  equator.  Two 
belts  of  high  pressure  thus  tend  to  be  formed  round  the  globe,  from 
which  winds  blow  along  the  surface  of  the  earth  towards  the 
equator  on  the  one  hand,  and  towards,  but  not  to,  the  poles  on  the 
other.  The  winds  which  blow  from  these  high  pressure  belts 
towards  the  equatorial  low-pressure  belt  blow  from  the  north- 
east in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  from  the  south-east  in  the 
southern,  and  on  account  of  their  steadiness  are  known  as  the  trade 
winds.  On  the  other  hand,  those  winds,  which  blow  from  the 
north  and  south  high-pressure  belts  to  the  regions  of  lower  pressure 
lying  to  the  north  and  south  of  them  respectively,  blow  from  the 


CLIMATE  9 

south-west  and  west  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  from  the 
north-west  and  west  in  the  southern.  Into  these  regions  of  lower 
.pressure,  also,  winds  appear  to  blow  from  the  polar  ice-caps  which 
are  areas  of  great  cold,  and  therefore  of  high  pressure.  Thus,  the 
ideal  distribution  of  pressure  and  winds  over  the  face  of  the  globe 
is  as  follows  :  at  the  equator  there  is  a  belt  of  low  pressure,  where, 
on  account  of  the  ascending  air,  calm  and  variable  winds  prevail. 
To  the  north  and  south  of  this  blow  the  steady  trade  winds,  beyond 
which  are  the  high-pressure  belts  where,  as  the  air  is  descending 
from  higher  altitudes,  calm  and  variable  winds  are  again  found. 
In  higher  latitudes  are  the  westerly  and  south-westerly  winds  of 
the  northern  hemisphere,  and  the  westerly  and  north-westerly  of 
the  southern.  From  the  polar  areas  of  high  pressure,  winds  blow 
from  the  north-east  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  from  the 
south-east  in  the  southern. 

That  this  distribution  of  pressure  and  winds  prevails  over  the 
earth  not  in  its  ideal  but  in  a  much  modified  form,  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  surface  of  the  globe  consists  not  of  land  only,  but  of  land 
and  water,  unequally  distributed.  This  further  modification  has 
now  to  be  introduced  into  the  hypothetical  case  with  which  the 
consideration  of  climate  was  begun.  For  several  reasons  the 
temperature  of  the  ocean  rises  more  slowly  in  warm  weather  than 
that  of  the  land.  The  specific  heat  of  water  is  greater  than  that  of 
the  land.  The  sun's  rays  penetrate  it  to  a  greater  extent,  and  there- 
fore warm  it  less  on  the  surface ;  much  heat  is  spent  in  the  work  of 
evaporation,  and,  as  will  be  seen  later,  much  is  carried  off  by  the 
warm  currents  which  flow  to  colder  regions.  For  somewhat  similar 
reasons  the  ocean  cools  more  slowly  than  the  land.  The  water 
gives  up  its  heat  less  rapidly,  and,  as  that  lying  on  the  surface 
becomes  cold  and  sinks,  warmer  water  from  below  rises  to  take  its 
place.  Except  in  low  latitudes,  therefore,  where  the  land  tem- 
perature is  high  throughout  the  year,  the  surface  of  the  ocean  is 
generally  colder  than  the  land  during  the  summer  and  warmer  during 
the  winter,  and  the  range  of  temperature  between  summer  and 
winter  is  greater  over  the  land  than  it  is  over  the  sea.  These  facts 
have  an  important  bearing  upon  the  distribution  of  pressure  and 
Winds.  During  the  summer  months  the  air  over  the  great  land 
masses  becomes  heated,  expands,  and  flows  outwards  over  the  ocean, 
thus  decreasing  the  pressure  over  the  land  and  increasing  it  over  the 


10  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

sea.  To  restore  equilibrium,  winds  blow  inward  over  the  surface  of 
the  earth  from  the  sea  to  the  heated  interior  of  the  land  mass. 
These  winds  being  deflected  to  the  right  of  their  direction  of  motion 
in  the  northern  hemisphere,  in  which  all  the  great  land  masses  of 
the  globe  are  situated,  tend  to  bring  about  the  development  of 
cyclonic  movements  in  which  the  air  circulates  in  a  counter-clock- 
wise direction.  During  the  winter  months  the  conditions  are 
reversed.  The  air  over  the  land  is  rapidly  cooled,  contracts,  and 
sinks  to  lower  altitudes,  so  that  in  the  upper  horizontal  layers 
of  the  atmosphere  pressure  is  greater  over  the  sea  than  it  is  over 
the  land,  and  there  is  an  inward  movement  of  the  air  which  causes 
an  increase  in  pressure  over  the  surface  of  the  land  and  a  decrease 
over  the  surface  of  the  sea.  Accordingly,  there  is  an  outward 
movement  of  the  winds  from  the  land  to  the  sea,  and  these,  being 
deflected  to  the  right,  as  in  the  previous  case,  have  a  tendency  to 
circulate  round  the  region  of  high  pressure  in  a  clockwise  direction 
in  the  northern  hemisphere.  The  actual  distribution  of  pressure 
and  winds  over  the  face  of  the  globe  is  therefore  very  different 
from  the  ideal  distribution  as  sketched  above.  In  equatorial 
regions  the  belt  of  low  pressure  moves  northwards  and  southwards 
with  the  sun.  On  either  side  of  it  lie  the  high-pressure  belts  which 
change  in  form  and  extent  during  the  course  of  the  year,  as  a 
result  of  the  unequal  heating  of  land  and  water.  During  the 
northern  summer,  the  north  high -pressure  belt  is  broken  up  over 
the  land  and  extended  over  the  sea,  while  in  winter  it  is  generally 
extended  over  the  land  and  contracted  over  the  sea.  To  the  north 
of  this  high-pressure  belt  there  are,  in  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific, 
both  in  summer  and  winter,  but  much  further  south  in  winter  than 
in  summer,  areas  of  low  pressure  into  which  winds  both  from  the 
high-pressure  belt  and  the  polar  area  of  high  pressure  are  con- 
tinually blowing.  In  the  southern  hemisphere  the  normal  dis- 
tribution of  the  winds  is  much  less  affected  owing  to  the  much 
smaller  land  area  which  exists  there  in  temperate  latitudes.  These 
variations  in  pressure  modify,  to  a  great  extent,  the  planetary 
distribution  of  winds  already  discussed.  In  some  cases  the  winds 
are  strengthened,  in  others  weakened,  and  in  still  others  are  entirely 
reversed.  For  example,  the  westerly  and  south-westerly  winds 
which  blow  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  from  the  tropic  high-pressure  \ 
belt  towards  the  west  coasts  of  Europe  are  strengthened  during 


CLIMATE  1 1 

the  winter  months  by  the  presence  in  the  North  Atlantic  of  the 
area  of  low  pressure  ahready  mentioned.  In  corresponding  latitudes 
on  the  east  coast  of  North  America,  however,  the  prevaihng  winds 
during  the  winter  months  are  those  which  blow  from  the  high- 
pressure  area  over  the  continent  towards  the  low-pressure  area  over 
the  Atlantic,  and,  being  deflected  to  the  right,  appear  as  northerly 
and  north-westerly  winds.  During  the  summer  months,  again, 
the  low-pressure  area  over  the  Asiatic  land  mass  sucks  in  the  air 
from  over  the  Indian  Ocean  to  such  an  extent  that  the  north-east 
trade  winds  disappear  and  are  replaced  by  the  south-west  monsoon. 

It  is  obvious  that  the  winds  must  exercise  considerable  influence 
upon  the  distribution  of  temperature  over  the  globe.  Those  which 
blow  from  the  cold  continental  interiors  during  the  winter  months 
frequently  cause  severe  weather  in  comparatively  low  latitudes  ; 
the  trade  winds  which  come  from  the  sea  tend  to  reduce  the  tem- 
perature of  the  warm  lands  towards  which  they  blow  ;  and  on  the 
western  coasts  of  Europe  the  westerly  and  south-westerly  winds 
which  prevail  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  but  more  particularly  during 
the  winter  months,  have  a  modifying  effect,  reducing  the  heat  of 
summer  and  mitigating  the  cold  of  winter. 

Ocean  currents  are  another  factor  in  the  distribution  of 
temperature,  and  their  effects  upon  climate  can  most  appro- 
priately be  considered  in  connection  with  the  winds  through 
which  they  make  their  influence  felt.  For  it  must  be  remembered 
that  the  presence  of  a  warm  current  off  the  shores  of  a  cold  country 
would  have  little  effect  upon  its  climate,  except,  perhaps,  to  keep 
its  ports  free  from  ice,  if  winds,  either  warmed  or  prevented  from 
cooling  by  the  current,  did  not  blow  inland.  The  general  circulation 
of  the  surface  waters  of  the  ocean  may  best  be  considered  by  des- 
cribing what  takes  place  in  the  Atlantic.  There,  the  heated  surface 
waters  of  equatorial  regions  are  blown  along  by  the  trade  winds 
and  gradually  acquire  a  momentum  of  their  own.  Two  currents, 
the  North  Equatorial  and  the  South  Equatorial,  are  thus  formed, 
and  these  flow  westwards  till  they  strike  the  coast  of  South 
America.  Here  part  of  the  southern  current  is  forced  northward 
and  joins  the  northern  current,  which,  being  likewise  deflected  by 
the  land,  turns  to  the  north.  Part  of  it  enters  the  Caribbean  Sea 
and  passes  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  issuing  to  join  the  remainder, 
which  has  made  its  way  northward  to  the  east  of  the  West  Indies. 


12  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

The  reunited  current  follows  the  coast  of  the  United  States  as  far 
as  the  fortieth  parallel  where  it  meets  the  cold  Labrador  current 
from  Davis  Strait  and  is  more  or  less  dispersed.  Some  of  its  waters, 
no  longer  as  a  definite  current,  but  as  a  surface  drift,  are  carried  by 
the  westerly  winds  across  the  Atlantic.  This  drift  divides  off  the 
coast  of  Spain,  part  turning  south  and  rejoining  the  North  Equatorial 
current,  while  the  other  part,  still  under  the  influence  of  the  westerly 
winds,  makes  its  way  past  the  British  Isles,  along  the  coast  of 
Norway,  and  into  the  Arctic  Sea.  That  part  of  the  South  Equatorial 
current  which  is  deflected  southward  flows  along  the  coast  of 
South  America  until  it,  too,  passes  under  the  influence  of  westerly 
winds  which  carry  it  eastwards  until  it  bifurcates  off  the  coast  of 
Africa,  one  branch  turning  north  to  join  the  equatorial  current, 
and  the  other  continuing  to  follow  the  tract  of  the  westerly  winds. 
In  the  North  Pacific  the  circulation  is,  on  the  whole,  similar  to  that 
of  the  North  Atlantic,  the  main  differences  being  accounted  for  by 
differences  in  the  configuration  of  the  two  basins,  while  south  of  the 
equator  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans  have  a  circulation  like  that  of 
the  South  Atlantic,  but  modified  somewhat  by  monsoon  conditions. 
On  the  west  coasts  of  continents,  within  the  trade  wind  belts,  there 
are  cold  currents,  due  in  part  to  the  upwelling  of  cold  water  to  take 
the  place  of  that  blown  westwards  by  the  trade  winds,  and  in  part 
to  the  branches  of  the  easterly  drift  which  turn  equatorwards  to 
join  the  main  current.  Along  the  east  coasts  of  North  America 
and  Asia  there  are  also  cold  currents  which  move  southwards  until 
they  meet  with,  and  are  lost  in,  the  deflected  equatorial  currents. 

Altitude  is  another  important  factor  in  the  determination  of 
temperature.  With  an  increase  in  altitude  the  atmosphere  becomes 
less  dense,  and  also  contains  much  less  water  vapour  and  atmos- 
pheric dust.  The  sun's  rays  therefore  pass  through  it  more  easily 
and  are  absorbed  to  a  less  extent ;  and  this  is  also  the  case  with 
the  heat  rays  radiated  from  the  earth.  Accordingly  the  atmosphere 
becomes  cooler  at  an  average  rate  of  about  1°  F.  for  every  300  feet 
of  vertical  ascent. 

Inversions  of  temperature,  however,  are  frequent,  and  are  often 
of  economic  importance.  On  still  nights,  when  insolation  ceases 
and  radiation  begins,  the  air  which  is  in  immediate  contact  with  the 
earth  cools  more  rapidly  than  that  at  higher  elevations.  Conse- 
quently, temperature  may  slightly  increase  upwards,  even  to  a 


CLIMATE  13 

height  of  2,000  feet  and  more.     Sometimes,  also,  colder  air  is  found 
in  valleys  than  on  the  neighbouring  uplands.     Valleys  frequently 
receive  less  sunlight  and  are  warmed  to  a  less  extent,  while  cold  air  f 
from  the  mountain  sides  may  slip  down  into  them  and  remain  there.  ' 
Certain  plants  which  are  liable  to  damage  from  frost  are  therefore 
often  planted  on  the  lower  slopes  of  hills  rather  than  in  valleys. 

The  conditions  affecting  the  distribution  of  rainfall  over  the 
globe  have  next  to  be  considered.  In  the  lower  layers  of  the 
atmosphere  water  exists  in  a  gaseous  form  as  water  vapour.  This 
is  obtained  by  evaporation  mainly  from  the  sea,  but  to  some  extent 
also  from  the  land,  and  the  lakes,  rivers,  and  vegetation  upon  its 
surface.  The  air,  however,  is  only  able  to  contain  a  certain  amount 
of  moisture  at  any  given  time,  and  that  amount  depends  upon  the 
temperature  at  which  it  then  is.  When  the  temperature  is  high  it 
can  hold  a  much  greater  amount  of  water  as  vapour  than  it  can 
when  the  temperature  is  low.  Hence,  it  is  of  importance  to  dis- 
tinguish between  the  absolute  and  the  relative  humidity  of  the  air. 
The  former  is  the  actual  amount  of  water  vapour  in  the  air  at  any 
given  time,  while  the  latter  is  the  ratio  of  that  amount  to  the 
amount  which  the  air  could  hold  at  the  temperature  at  which  it 
then  is.  When  the  temperature  continues  to  fall  below  that 
point  (called  the  saturation  point),  at  which  the  air  is  just  able  to 
retain  the  vapour  it  holds  at  the  time,  condensation  and  precipitation 
follow.  This  process,  however,  is  much  facilitated  by  the  presence 
of  atmospheric  dust  around  the  particles  of  which  the  vapour 
more  easily  condenses. 

The  necessary  cooling  to  effect  condensation  may  be  brought 
about  in  one  or  other  of  several  ways.     Within  the  equatorial  belt 
of  calms,  warm  air,  containing  much  moisture  evaporated  from  the 
ocean,  ascends  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  but,  cooling  as  it  ascends, 
it  is  no  longer  able  to  retain  that  moisture  and  heavy  rainfall  ensues. 
This  process  of  cooling  by  the  ascent  of  convection  currents  also 
takes  place  to  some  extent  over  the  heated  interior  of  continents 
during  the  summer  months.     Winds  blowing  from  the  sea  are    \ 
frequently  chilled  when  brought  into  contact  with  land,  and  their    ( 
moisture  is  deposited.     If  the  land  is  much  warmer  than  the  sea,    ] 
however,  this  result  may  not  follow,  and  in  the  absence  of  moun- 
tains there  may  be  comparatively  little  precipitation.     Mountains, 
indeed,  may  play  an  important  part  in  the  distribution  of  rainfall. 


14  ECONOMIC    GEOGRAPHY 

by  deflecting  upwards  winds  from  the  sea  and  causing  the 
moisture  which  they  contain  to  condense,  either  by  direct  cooHng 
or  by  cooHng  consequent  upon  expansion  under  decreased  pressure. 
In  such  cases  there  is  usually  a  wet  and  a  dry  side  to  a  mountain 
range,  as  the  air  descending  on  the  leeward  side  becomes  heated, 
and  is  able  to  retain  what  moisture  is  left. 


CHAPTER  III 

VEGETATION 

The  distribution  of  vegetation  over  the  surface  of  the  earth  is 
primarily  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  dimate  and  the  character 
of  the  soil.  The  climatic  factors — especially  humidity  and 
temperature — ^are  the  more  important.  The  amount  of  water  in 
the  soil  and  in  the  atmosphere,  the  periods  of  the  year  in  which 
precipitation  takes  place,  and  the  conditions  under  which  moisture 
is  absorbed  by  plants,  affect  their  structure  in  a  marked  degree. 
Those  which  grow  in  a  region  where  the  humidity  is  high  differ 
in  many  respects  from  those  which  grow  where  it  is  low.  But  an 
important  distinction  between  physical  and  physiological  humidity 
must  at  once  be  made.  Certain  conditions  may  prevent  the  absorp- 
tion of  moisture  by  plants  even  when  it  is  present  in  abundance. 
For  example,  when  the  temperature  is  low,  water  cannot  be  so  easily 
absorbed  by  vegetation  as  when  it  is  high,  and  for  the  purposes  of 
plant  life,  therefore,  the  colder  parts  of  the  world  are  relatively  dry. 
Again,  the  presence  of  humus  acids  renders  the  absorption  of 
water  by  plants  difficult,  and  districts  where  these  acids  occur  in 
the  soil  are  physiologically  dry.  Those  plants  which  flourish  in 
regions  physiologically  humid  are  known  as  hjigiig^hytes,  and 
they  are  fitted  both  by  their  internal  structure  and  their  external 
parts,  such  as  their  leaves  which  are  broad  and  relatively  thin, 
to  get  rid  of  excess  moisture.  Xerophytes,  on  the  other  hand,  grow  u^ 
in  regions  which  are  physiologically  dry,  and  their  structure  is  such 
as  to  retain  what  moisture  there  is.  Their  transpiring  surface  is 
generally  limited,  and  their  leaves  are,  in  some  cases,  thick  and 
leathery,  in  others,  needle-shaped,  and  in  yet  others,  so  adjusted 
as  to  lie  parallel  to  the  rays  of  the  sun.  Certain  plants  known  as 
tropophytes  are  alternately  hygrophilous  and  xerophilous.  At 
the  beginning  of  the  physiologically  dry  season  they  drop  their 
xerophilous  parts,  such  as  their  leaves,  to  assume  them  later  when 
climatic  conditions  become  more  favourable. 

If  humidity  is  the  most  important  factor  in  determining  the 
structure  of  plants  it  is  heat  to  which  they  owe  their  growth. 

15 


16  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

Every  plant  lives  between  two  temperatures,  above  the  upper  of 
which  or  below  the  lower,  it  cannot  continue  to  exist  for  long. 
Each  function  of  the  plant,  moreover,  such  as  germinating,  flowering, 
and  seeding,  has  its  own  upper  and  lower  zero  points,  between 
which  that  function  can  alone  take  place. 

The  effect  of  water  upon  plant  life  is  therefore  very  different 
from  that  of  heat.  Upon  humidity  depends  the  type  of  vegetation 
— ^whether  it  be  woodland  or  grassland,  or  whether  desert  conditions 
prevail.  The  amount  of  moisture  necessary  for  woodland  is,  as  a 
general  rule,  greater  than  that  required  for  grassland  and  the 
seasonal  distribution  is  different ;  while  the  amount  required  for 
either  woodland  or  grassland  is  greater  in  tropical  than  in  temperate 
regions.  According  to  Schimper,  the  essential  characteristics 
of  a  good  woodland  climate  are  "  a  warm  vegetative  season,  a 
continuously  moist  subsoil,  and  calm  air,  especially  in  winter." 
For  grassland,  on  the  other  hand,  the  nature  of  the  subsoil  is  of 
little  importance,  but  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  there  should 
be  '*  frequent,  even  if  weak  atmospheric  precipitation  during  the 
vegetative  season,  so  that  the  superficial  soil  is  kept  in  a  moist 
condition  "  ;  and  further,  a  moderate  degree  of  heat  during  the 
same  period.  Where  the  best  woodland  conditions  prevail,  the 
trees  are  hygrophilous  ;  in  a  less  favourable  environment  they  tend 
to  be  xerophilous. 

The  part  played  bj^  the  soil  is  generally  of  secondary  importance ; 
but,  as  its  water-holding  capacity  is  affected  by  its  physical  struc-' 
ture,  that,  along  with  its  chemical  composition,  enables  it  to  incline 
the  balance  towards  woodland  or  towards  grassland  when  the  otheiH 
factors  are  evenly  matched. 

These  two  great  types  of  vegetation — ^woodland  and  grassland — 
are  each  capable  of  considerable  subdivision.  In  those  tropical 
regions  where  the  rain  falls  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  the  forest  isj 
evergreen,  and  is  noted,  not  only  for  its  luxuriance,  but  for  its 
great  wealth  of  shrubs,  mosses,  lianes,  and  epiphytes.  When  there 
is  a  well-marked  dry  season,  as  in  the  monsoon  area,  the  vegetation, 
though  dense,  is  tropophilous,  the  trees  shedding  the  most  of  their 
leaves  at  the  beginning  of  the  dry  period.  Savanna  forests,  in 
which  the  trees  are  xerophilous  and  interspersed  with  grass,  occupy 
considerable  areas  within  the  tropics  where  the  rainfall  is  relatively 
low ;  while,  under  the  least  favourable  conditions  for  tree  growth  in 


VEGETATION  17 

tropical  regions,  thorn -forests,  such  as  the  Caatinga  of  Brazil,  cover 
the  ground.  In  the  warm  temperate  belts,  an  evergreen  hygro- 
philous  forest  of  considerable  density  is  found  in  those  regions 
which  have  rain  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  ;  when  the  summers  are 
moist  and  the  winters  dry,  this  passes  into  savanna  forest  and 
thorn  forest.  On  the  other  hand,  when  the  winters  are  moist  and 
the  summers  dry,  as  round  the  Mediterranean,  a  sclerophyllous  wood- 
land with  thick  leathery  leaves  prevails.  In  the  cool  temperate 
belts  there  are  two  great  types  of  woodland,  the  summer  green  forest, 
which  is  tropophilous,  and  the  evergreen  coniferous  forest,  the 
structure  of  which  is  xerophilous.  In  tropical  regions  and  in  the 
warm  temperature  belts,  grassland  is  generally  of  the  savanna 
type ;  the  grasses  are  tall  and  grow  in  tufts,  while  the  landscape  is 
broken  by  trees  and  shrubs.  Under  unfavourable  conditions 
savanna  passes  into  steppe.  In  the  cool  temperate  belts  grass- 
land varies  from  meadow  to  steppe.  In  meadow  the  grasses  are^ 
hygrophilous  and  grow  in  close  formation ;  in  steppe  they  are 
xerophilous  and  the  formation  is  open. 

In  all  these  cases  local  conditions  of  soil  and  climate  may  cause 
variations  in  the  prevailing  type  of  vegetation. 

It  is  difficult  to  correlate  the  distribution  of  economic  plants 
with  natural  types  of  vegetation  because  the  former  have  frequently 
been  introduced  into,  and  acclimatised  in,  regions  to  which  they 
are  not  indigenous.  Frequently,  also,  their  original  character  has 
undergone  great  change  as  a  result  of  their  new  environment  and 
their  long  cultivation  by  man.  But  it  will  be  seen  from  what 
follows,  that  the  cHmate  and  soil  which  suit  certain  natural  types 
of  vegetation  are  likewise  adapted  to  the  growth  of  certain  plants 
of  great  economic  value,  thatigh  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  their 
limits  are  coterminous,   r 

Caoutchouc  or  rubber  is  the  coagulated  latex  or  sap  of 
various  trees  and  other  plants  which  grow  mainly  within  the  tropical 
forests.  The  most  important  of  these  belong  to  the  genus 
Hevea,  one  species  of  which,  Hevea  hrasiliensis,  grows  extensively 
in  the  Amazonian  lowlands.  This  tree,  which  reaches  a  height  of 
100  feet,  thrives  best  in  districts  which  are  regularly  inundated, 
but  it  will  grow  elsewhere,  provided  it  has  a  deep  rich  soil  which  is 
constantly  moist.  It  does  not  flourish  where  there  is  a  dry  season, 
nor  do  sandy  soils  suit  it.     It  only  lives  with  difficulty  in  regions 

2— (1326) 


18  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

where  the  thermometer  falls  below  65°  F.  and  probably  finds 
its  most  favourable  environment  where  the  mean  annual 
temperature  is  between  80°  F.  and  90°  F.  Several  other  species 
of  Hevea  produce  rubber  under  somewhat  similar  conditions. 
The  "  manicoba "  (Manihot  Glaziovii)  is  also  rubber-producing. 
It  is  a  smaller  tree  than  H.  brasiliensis,  and,  while  demanding 
a  high  temperature,  thrives  best  on  sloping  land  with  a  stony 
and  weU-drained  soil.  A  poorer  quaHty  of  rubber  known  as 
"  mangabeira  "  is  obtained  from  Hancornia  speciosa,  a  tree  which 
belongs  rather  to  the  savanna  regions  of  the  tropics,  though  it 
will  also  thrive  where  there  is  a  heavy  rainfall.  CasHlloa  elastica 
grows  in  Central  America  where  it  flourishes  best  when  it 
does  not  experience  a  minimum  temperature  of  less  than  60°  F. ,  and 
an  annual  precipitation  of  over  60  inches  with  a  dry  season  of  less 
than  four  months.  It  prefers  a  clay  soil  or  a  mixture  of  sand  and 
clay,  but  will  not  grow  in  a  marshy  district  or  where  the  subsoil 
is  very  wet.  One  of  the  chief  rubber-producing  plants  of  Asia  is 
Ficus  elastica  which  frequently  begins  life  as  an  epiphyte, 
but  after  some  years  strikes  into  the  ground  on  its  own  account. 
It  grows  best  in  forested  regions  on  the  lower  slopes  of  hills,  and 
requires  abundant  rains  with  only  a  short  dry  period  ;  it  can  stand 
a  certain  amoimt  of  cold,  and  a  shght  frost  does  not  injure  it 
seriously.  In  Africa,  rubber  is  mainly  obtained  by  tapping  certain 
trees  and  vines,  notably  Funtumia  elastica,  and  various  species 
of  the  genus  Landolphia.  Funtumia  elastica  grows  both  in  regions 
which  are  always  wet,  and  in  regions  which  have  a  dry  season. 
Of  the  Landolphia,  L.  owariensis  grows  in  the  forests  of  the  Congo 
basin,  while  L.  Heudelotti  prefers  the  drier  savanna  lands  of  Sudan. 
Coffee. — ^There  are  two  varieties  of  coffee  in  common  use, 
Coffea  arabica  and  Coffea  liberica.  The  former,  which  is  com- 
mercially the  more  important,  is  grown  in  upland  regions,  while 
the  latter  prefers  the  lowlands.  The  coffee  plant  requires  a  heavy 
rainfall,  and  appears  to  thrive  best  where  the  annual  precipitation 
is  at  least  60  or  70  inches.  Its  cultivation  is  seldom  carried  far 
beyond  the  tropics,  within  which  a  temperature  varying  from  60°  F. 
to  80°  F.  appears  most  favourable  to  it.  At  the  same  time  it  seems 
able  to  stand  occasional  low  temperatures,  and  the  thermometer 
may  even  descend  to  freezing  point  without  damaging  more  than 
the  young  wood.     On  the  other  hand,  at  a  temperature  of  95°  F 


J 


VEGETATION  19 

at  most,  the  plant  begins  to  suffer.  Coffee  is  an  exhausting  crop 
and  demands  a  rich  soil.  Hence  it  finds  its  most  favourable 
environment  on  land  from  which  virgin  forest  has  recently  been 
cleared.  The  height  at  which  Coffea  arahica  thrives  best  varies  in 
the  different  regions  in  which  it  is  grown,  but  probably  the  most 
favourable  situations  he  between  1,000  and  5,000  feet. 

Cacao. — ^The  cacao  tree  (Cacao  theobroma)  demands  a  warmer 
and  more  humid  climate  than  coffee  and  grows  best  where  the 
temperature  falls  between  75 °F.  and  85° F.  Its  natural  habitat 
is  the  wet  evergreen  forest  in  districts  subject  to  frequent  inunda- 
tions, and  unhke  coffee  it  does  not  thrive  in  upland  regions.  It 
flourishes  on  the  banks  of  rivers  where  the  alluvium,  which  they 
have  brought  down,  is  mixed  with  humus.  When  the  plant  is 
cultivated  it  requires,  for  a  time,  the  shelter  of  shade  trees. 

Rice. — Of  rice,  which  forms  one  of  the  chief  foods  of  the  human 
race,  there  are  many  varieties,  but  they  may  all  be  broadly  divided 
into  two  main  groups — ^upland  and  swamp.  Of  these,  the  latter  are 
the  more  important.  The  saying  that  rice  grows  best  with  its  feet 
in  the  water  and  its  head  in  the  fire,  indicates  the  nature  of  the 
chmate  required.  A  high  temperature  is  essential,  and  the  plant 
must  also  be  irrigated  to  a  depth  of  several  inches  at  certain  stages 
of  its  growth.  The  best  soils  are  clays  or  clay  loams,  such  as  are 
frequently  found  along  the  banks,  and  at  the  deltas,  of  rivers.  These 
districts  have  the  additional  advantage  of  being  flat  and  easily 
cultivated.  In  tropical  regions,  moreover,  they  are  often  under 
water  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  and  the  rice  plant  then  gets 
the  necessary  amount  of  water,  while  the  land  is  fertilised  by  the 
silt  which  is  deposited  at  these  times.  As  rice  is  an  exhausting 
crop,  recourse  would  otherwise  have  to  be  had  to  manure,  which 
is  practically  unobtainable  in  many  places  where  rice  is 
grown.  The  plant  can  also  be  cultivated  on  lands  which  are 
unflooded  if  irrigation  is  possible.  Upland  rice  which  requires 
much  less  moisture  can  be  raised  at  a  considerable  height  above 
sea-level. 

Sugar  Cane  grows  under  somewhat  similar  conditions  to  rice. 
As  a  rule,  Hghter  soils  are  more  favourable  to  it,  but  much 
depends  upon  the  rainfall.  A  considerable  amoimt  of  moisture 
is  necessary  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  and,  if  that  is  not 
forthcoming,  irrigation  must  be  resorted  to.      On  the  other  hand. 


20  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

too  much  rain  during  the  earUer  stages  of  the  growth  of  the  plant 
is  as  injurious  to  it  as  too  httle  during  the  later  stages. 

Jute  requires  a  hot,  damp  climate,  in  which  there  is  not  too 
much  rain,  and  it  accordingly  thrives  best  when  the  land  on  which 
it  grows  can  be  submerged  at  certain  periods  of  the  year.  As  the 
crop  is,  like  rice,  an  exhausting  one,  the  land  profits  greatly  by  the 
silt  which  is  then  deposited.  Jute  will  grow  on  all  kinds  of  soil,  but 
the  most  productive  are  loams  or  light  clays  mixed  with  sand, 
while  laterites  and  gravels  are  least  favourable  to  it.  Large 
quantities  of  jute,  of  coarse  quality,  are  grown  in  India  on  a 
mudbanks  and  islands  formed  by  the  rivers.  ! 

Among  other  products  of  regions  which  fall  within  the  area  of 
the  tropical  forests  are  timber,  including  mahogany,  teak,  ebony, 
and  rosewood  ;  dye-stuffs  obtained  from  logwood  and  red  Brazil 
wood  ;  drugs,  especially  cinchona  ;  spices  and  condiments,  such  as 
pepper,  ginger,  and  chillies  ;  and  fibres  of  which  Manila  hemp  is  the 
most  important. 

The  Date  Palm  is  the  most  valuable  food  plant  of  the  tropical 
desert,  and  the  chief  source  of  its  timber  supply.  No  degree  of  dry- 
ness in  the  atmosphere  and  no  amount  of  heat  will  injure  its  growth. 
Atmospheric  humidity,  indeed,  is  positively  detrimental  to  it.  On 
the  other  hand,  it  requires  a  continuous  supply  of  moisture  about 
its  roots,  but  it  is  able  to  resist  large  quantities  of  alkali  which  is 
often  present  both  in  the  soil  and  water  of  arid  regions.  Although 
the  date  palm  is  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  able  to  exist  with ; 
the  thermometer  below  freezing  point,  it  requires  a  very  high 
temperature  for  the  development  of  its  fruit,  and  the  lower  zero 
point  for  flowering  is  believed  to  be  65.5°F.  A  mean  temperature 
of  70 °F.  during  the  fruiting  season  (May  to  October)  with  one 
month  at  least  above  80°F.  will  enable  early  varieties  of  dates  to 
ripen ;  for  later  varieties  the  temperatures  must  be  above  75°F. 
and  85°F.  respectively,  and  for  the  best  and  latest  varieties  84°F. 
and  94°F. 

Tea  grows  in  certain  favoured  localities  of  the  wet  evergreen 
and  warm  temperate  forest  regions.  Being  able  to  stand  a  greater 
range  of  temperature,  it  has  a  wider  extension  than  either  coffee  or 
cacao,  and  in  Asia  it  is  grown  as  far  north  as  the  45th  parallel.  The 
conditions  most  favourable  to  it  are  a  temperature  not  falling 
for  long  below  54°F.,and  not  rising,  except  for  short  periods,  above 


VEGETATION  21 

80°F.  A  rainfall  of  at  least  60  inches  is  essential,  and  the  best 
results  are  obtained  when  there  are  nearly  100  inches,  a  considerable 
part  of  which  falls  during  the  vegetative  season.  At  the  same  time 
the  land  must  be  well -drained,  and  for  this  reason  it  was  long  thought 
that  the  tea  plant  would  only  flourish  upon  the  lower  slopes  of 
hills  ;  but,  within  recent  years,  many  gardens  have  been  established 
in  level  country  where  the  land  is  not  liable  to  be  water-logged. 
The  plant  thrives  best  on  deep,  reddish-coloured,  sandy  loams 
with  a  free  subsoil.  Soils,  rich  in  humus,  are  beneficial  to  it,  and 
for  this  reason  it  grows  well  in  districts  which  have  been  reclaimed 
from  virgin  forest,  or  even  from  swamps. 

Cotton. — This  plant  belongs  to  the  Malvaceae  or  mallow  family, 
the  species  of  it  which  are  most  cultivated  for  commercial  purposes 
being  Gossypium  herbaceum,  Gossypium  arboreum,  and  Gossypium 
harbadense.  The  first  of  these  is  allied  to  Gossypium  hirsutum, 
which  in  one  or  other  of  its  many  varieties  is  largely  grown  in  the 
United  States.  From  Gossypium  barbadense  Sea-island  cotton  is 
obtained.  The  bulk  of  the  world's  cotton  supply  is  at  present 
cultivated  on  lands  which  have  been  cleared  of  lighter  tropical  and 
warm  temperate  forests,  on  warm  temperate  savannas,  and  even 
on  desert  and  semi-desert  areas,  when  irrigation  is  practicable. 
Conditions  of  soil  and  climate  restrict  the  growth  of  the  plant 
even  within  these  regions.  Its  lower  zero  points  are  relatively 
high,  and  six  or  seven  months  free  from  frost  are  necessary  for  its 
development.  During  the  time  that  the  plant  is  growing  an 
increase  in  temperature  is  advantageous,  but,  after  full  vegetative 
growth  has  been  attained,  a  decrease  in  temperature  and  an  increas- 
ing diurnal  range  prevent  the  plant  from  running  to  wood,  and 
cause  it  to  devote  the  food  supply  which  it  has  accumulated 
to  the  nourishment  of  its  seed.  The  optimum  temperatures  for 
the  various  functions  have  not  yet  been  carefully  studied.  Accord- 
ing to  Heuze,  the  most  favourable  daily  temperature  from  germina- 
tion to  flowering  is  from  60°F.  to  68°F.,  and  from  flowering  to 
maturity,  68°F.  to  78°F. 

The  moisture  required  for  the  development  of  the  plant  is  sup- 
plied, as  will  be  seen  later,  under  conditions  which  vary  so  much  in 
different  parts  of  the  world,  that  no  absolute  statement  regarding 
the  amount  necessary  can  be  made.  In  the  earlier  stages  of  its 
growth   frequent    precipitations,    increasing  in  volume  with   the 


22  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

progress  of  the  plant,  yield  the  most  satisfactory  results.  Th 
absence  of  a  sufficient  supply  of  moisture  at  this  period  leads  t 
stunted  growth  and  premature  ripening,  while  too  great  an 
abundance  of  it  gives  rich  vegetation  with  little  fruit.  Later  on  a 
decreasing  rainfall  is  favourable  to  the  seed  maturing. 

The  nature  and  composition  of  the  soil  play  an  import  an' 
part  in  determining  whether  cotton  can  be  grown  upon  it  in  sufl&cien: 
quantities  to  make  it  a  profitable  crop  for  commercial  purpose 
The  agricultural  chemistry  of  cotton  is  yet  in  its  infancy  and  muc 
has  still  to  be  learned  on  the  subject ;  but  it  would  appear  thai 
those  soils,  which  are  most  favourable,  contain  nitrogen,  pho 
phoric  acid,  potash,  lime,  and  magnesia,  in  sufficient  quantities  to 
satisfy  the  demands  of  the  plant.  Nevertheless,  some  of  these 
may  be  present  in  very  small  quantities  on  good  cotton  land,  while 
other  lands,  seeming  to  possess  all  the  necessary  constituents,  fail 
to  yield  a  crop.  The  texture  of  the  soil  is  of  importance,  chiefly 
from  its  influence  on  the  water  supply.  If  the  rainfall  is  con- 
siderable, a  heavy  soil  may  become  waterlogged ;  on  the  other  hand, 
a  sandy  soil,  unable  to  retain  moisture,  will  only  yield  a  poor  crop  if 
the  rainfall  is  low.  Thus,  although  no  particular  soil  is  typical  of  th< 
cotton  belt,  one  which  is  continuously  moist,  but  not  wet,  is  tb 
most  suitable. 

Tobacco. — ^Although  the  tobacco  plant  thrives  both  in  tropica 
and  temperate  countries,  the  quality  of  the  tobacco  obtained  fron 
it  varies  greatly  according  to  the  chmatic  conditions  under  which  i 
is  cultivated.    Within  tropical  regions,  where  both  heat  and  moisturi 
are  abimdant,  the  very  finest  tobaccos  are  produced.    A  second  zon< 
of  cultivation  lies  to  the  north  of  this  first  one,  and  is  bounded  by 
the  isotherm  of  75°  F.  for  the  month  of  July.    This  zone  includes 
the  greater  part  of  the  United  States,  one  of  the  chief  tobacco- 
producing  regions   of  the   world.     In   the   southern   hemisphere 
there  is  a  corresponding  belt.    The  third  region,  and  one  whic] 
jdelds  a  coarse  tobacco  without  aroma,  lies  in  the  northern  hemii 
phere  only,  between  the  isotherms  of  75°  F.  and  65°  F.  for  the  mon 
of  July. 

Soil  is  a  very  important  factor  in  the  cultivation  of  tobaco 
In  Cuba,  for  example,  differences  in  the  soil  between  one  valley 
and  another  are  sufficient  to  cause  great  differences  in  the  quality 
the  product.     A  light  and  sandy  soil  grows  plants,  the  leaves 


VEGETATION  '^^  S  ^  23 

which  are  fine  in  texture  and  possess  a  light  and  delicate  aroma, 
while  a  clay  or  other  heavy  soil  produces  plants  with  thicker  and 
coarser  leaves.  As  a  general  rule,  valleys  covered  with  the  debris 
of  granitic  and  gneissic  rocks  are  among  the  most  suitable  lands  for 
the  cultivation  of  tobacco,  as  they  are  rich  in  potash.  The  presence 
of  humus  is  an  advantage. 

The  cereals,  other  than  rice,  have  a  very  wide  extension,  as  they 
have  in  many  cases  been  adapted  to  regions  in  which  they  are  not 
indigenous.  On  the  whole,  it  may  be  said  that  they  have  their 
greatest  development  in  the  lands  which  have  been  cleared  of 
deciduous  forest,  and  in  the  hygrophilous  grasslands  of  the  temperate 
zone,  although  they  spread  to  a  considerable  distance  on  either 
side  of  these  regions. 

Millet  belongs  chiefly  to  tropical  regions,  where  it  is  frequently 
found  on  soils  which  are  too  poor,  or  have  too  little  moisture,  to  grow 
wheat  or  rice.  The  two  most  important  varieties  are  Bajra  or 
Spiked  Millet  (Pennisetum  typhoideum)  and  Juar  or  Great 
Millet  (Sorghum  vulgare).  Millet  is  extensively  grown  in 
India  and  China  as  a  food  grain. 

Maize  or  Indian  Corn. — ^According  to  the  Tenth  Census  Report 
of  the  United  States,  in  which  country  over  three-fourths  of  the 
world's  supply  of  maize  is  grown,  "  the  ideal  climate  is  one  with  a 
summer  from  four  and  a  half  to  seven  months  long,  without  frost, 
the  middle  portion  hot  both  day  and  night,  sunny  skies,  sufficient 
rain  to  supply  the  demand  of  a  rapidly  growing  and  luxuriant  crop, 
falling  at  such  intervals  as  to  best  provide  moisture  without  ever 
making  the  land  actually  wet."  According  to  the  same  authority 
the  mean  temperature  of  the  warmest  month  of  the  year  is  of  great 
importance,  and  maize  thrives  best  when  that  ranges  from  70°F.,  or 
preferably  75°F.  to  80°F.  During  the  growing  season,  also,  there 
should  be  a  precipitation  of  from  15  to  30  inches. 

Wheat  is  grown  in  many  parts  of  the  world,  and  the  methods  of 
cultivation,  the  yield  per  acre,  and  the  nature  of  the  product  vary 
greatly.  The  most  suitable  soil  appears  to  be  a  light  clay  or  a 
heavy  loam,  but  many  others  are  very  productive  when  climatic 
conditions  are  favourable.  According  to  the  Census  Report 
already  referred  to,  the  seed,  in  order  that  there  may  be  a  good 
crop,  "  must  germinate  and  the  young  plants  grow  during  the  cool 
and  moist  parts  of  the  year,  which  season  determines  the  ultimate 


24  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

density  of  growth  on  the  ground,  and  consequently  mostly  deter- 
mines the  yield.  .  .  .  Wheat  branches  only  at  the  ground  and  pro- 
duces no  more  heads  than  stalks.  It  only  sends  out  these  branches 
early  in  its  growth  or  during  cool  weather,  and  unless  the  growth  is 
comparatively  slow  the  branching  of  wheat  (called  '  tillering  ') 
must  take  place  before  the  plant  attains  any  considerable  height 
or  it  does  not  occur  at  all."  On  the  other  hand,  "  wheat  ripens  in 
the  warmer  and  drier  parts  of  the  year,  which  season  more  largely 
determines  the  quality,  plumpness  and  colour  of  the  grain.  .  .  . 
More  sun  is  needed  and  less  rain.  Too  much  rain,  particularly  if 
accompanied  with  heat,  induces  rust,  mildew  and  other  diseases,  and 
too  dry  winds  shrink  the  grain."  Many  investigations  have  been 
made  as  to  the  exact  amount  of  heat  required  by  wheat,  but  no  pre- 
cise result  has  as  yet  been  obtained,  though  it  is  believed  that 
a  temperature  of  at  least  41°  F.  is  necessary  before  vegetative  growth 
can  begin.  The  temperature,  measured  by  day  degrees,  ^  which 
must  accumulate  before  wheat  will  ripen,  appears  to  vary  in  different 
parts  of  the  world  according  to  the  length  of  the  day,  the  amount 
of  precipitation,  and  the  nature  of  the  soil.  In  England,  wheat 
ripens  as  a  rule  when  the  accumulated  temperature  amounts  to 
1,960  day  degrees  (F.),  but  in  some  parts  of  Alaska,  where  the  days 
are  long,  only  1,320  day  degrees  (F.)  are  necessary.  In  sub-tropical 
countries  wheat  is  a  winter  crop,  the  summers  frequently  being 
too  hot  or  too  dry. 

With  regard  to  rainfall  a  mean  annual  precipitation  of  about 
15  inches  may  generally  be  regarded  as  a  minimum,  except  under 
special  conditions,  as,  for  example,  when  all  the  rain  falls  during  the 
growing  season,  or  when  irrigation  or  dry  farming  is  practised. 

The  quality  of  wheat  varies  with  the  conditions  under  which  it  is 
grown.  The  soft  winter  wheats,  which  grow  in  mild  moist  districts, 
such  as  Western  Europe,  are  relatively  rich  in  starch,  while  hard 
wheats — ^whether  winter  or  spring — which  grow  in  regions  where  the 
summers  are  hot  and  precipitation  is  light,  are  poor  in  starch,  but 
rich  in  gluten,  and  are  particularly  adapted  for  milling  purposes. 
In  various  parts  of  the  world,  attempts — all  more  or  less  successful — 
are  being  made  to  adapt  the  grain  more  closely  to  its  environment 
and  to  render  it  more  suitable  lor  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  required. 

^  Day  degrees  are  reckoned  by  taking  the  excess  of  the  mean  temperature 
of  the  day  over  zero  point,  in  this  case  41*'F.  If  the  mean  temperature  of 
any  day  is  50**F.,  nine  day  degrees  are  accumulated. 


VEGETATION  25 

Oats  thrive  best  in  districts  with  cooler  siimmers  than  are  neces- 
sary for  wheat.  It  is,  therefore,  an  important  crop  in  many  parts 
of  the  world  where  the  climate  is  too  moist  or  too  cool  for  the 
latter  cereal. 

Barley  has  a  wider  range  than  any  other  cereal.  It  ripens 
easily  and  can  be  grown  well  within  the  Arctic  Circle.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  does  not  require  much  moisture  and  will  flourish  in  regions 
where  there  is  little  precipitation  during  the  summer  months, 
as  is  the  case  in  countries  along  the  Mediterranean  seaboard. 

Of  other  cereals,  rye  thrives  on  poor  soils  and  under  inclement 
climatic  conditions,  while  buckwheat  is  often  grown  where  the 
standard  of  cultivation  is  low. 

Root-crops. — ^Beet  grown  for  sugar  has  become  an  important 
agricultural  product  in  Europe  and  America  within  recent  years. 
The  regions  in  which  its  cultivation  is  most  successful  lie  within 
a  belt  bounded  by  the  isotherms  of  65°  F.  and  75°  F.  for  the  three 
months  of  June,  July,  and  August.  A  rainfall  of  2  to  4  inches  in 
each  of  these  months  gives  the  best  results.  It  is  also  grown  on 
irrigated  lands,  and  can  even  grow  in  dry  regions  without  irrigation 
if  there  is  sufficient  moisture  in  the  subsoil. 

The  Potato  is  easily  acclimatised  and  is  grown  under  different 
climatic  conditions  in  various  parts  of  the  world. 

Fibres. — ^Flax  thrives  best  on  soils  which  are  rich  in  phosphates, 
and  grows  under  very  diverse  climatic  conditions  in  different  parts 
of  the  world.  In  warm  countries  such  as  India,  the  seed  (used  in 
the  manufacture  of  linseed  oil  and  linseed  cake)  is  abundant,  but 
the  fibre  is  poor,  and  all  attempts  to  combine  the  two  crops  seem  to 
have  met,  so  far,  with  only  moderate  success.  A  moist  and  mild 
climate,  on  the  other  hand,  leads  to  the  development  of  the  fibre, 
but  does  not  enable  the  seed  to  mature. 

Hemp,  like  flax,  has  a  wide  extension.  It  requires  a  moist 
and  warm  climate,  but,  as  its  growing  season  is  a  short  one,  it  is 
aljle  to  make  its  way  northwards  in  certain  parts  of  the  world  as 
far  as  the  60th  parallel. 

Pulses,  including  peas,  beans,  and  soya  beans,  all  flourish  in 
temperate,  and  to  some  extent  in  tropical  countries.  Peas  find 
their  most  congenial  environment  in  cool  temperate,  and  beans  in 
warm  temperate  regions.  Soya  beans  (Dolichos  soja),  which  have 
within  recent  years  become  of  considerable  importance,  can  adapt 


26  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

themselves  to  varying  climatic  conditions.  **  They  are  very  resists n 
to  drought,  can  endure  shght  frosts,  and  are  capable  of  withstandin 
an  excess  of  moisture.  .  .  .  They  thrive  equally  well  in  region 
occasionally  subjected  to  periods  of  semi-aridity,  in  regions  whei 
the  valley  soils  are  flooded  for  a  few  weeks  during  the  rainy  seasoi 
and  in  northern  latitudes  having  a  growing  season  like  that  ii 
Minnesota."  In  the  United  States  soya  beans  grow  best  betweei 
latitudes  37°  and  43°,  but  in  Manchuria,  where  they  are  chiefl; 
cultivated  at  present,  they  make  their  way  as  far  north  as  latitud 
47°,  and  the  further  north  they  extend  the  better  they  become 
*  *  They  grow  best  in  soils  of  medium  texture  containing  fair  quant; 
ties  of  potash,  lime  and  phosphoric  acid.  Good  results  hav 
sometimes  been  obtained  in  comparatively  light  soils,  and  an 
abundant  crop  is  sometimes  obtained  on  land  too  poor  for  clover." 
( "  The  Soya  Bean  of  Manchuria  " — ^Imperial  Maritime  Customs, 
Special  Series,  No.  31.) 


EUROPE 


CHAPTER  IV 

EUROPE 

I  Europe  forms  the  western  part  of  the  great  continental  land  mass 
i  of  Eurasia,  and  on  physical  grounds  alone  can  hardly  be  considered 
I  a  separate  continent.      But  its  peninsular  character  and(^greatly 
indented  coast  line,"^  its  climate,  and  above  all  the  poHtical  and 
economic  development  of  the  majority  of  its  inhabitants,  mark  it 
'  off  from  Asia,  and  justify  the  usual  custom  of  according  it  treat- 
ment by  itself.     In  the  circumstances,  however,  it  is  obvious  that 
!  the  Wundary:-betja^en_Europe  j-nd  Asia^  must  be  more  or  less 
I  conventional,  and  it  is  generally  taken  as  following(the  Ural  moun- 
I  tains,  the  Ural  river,  and  the  Manych  depression  to  the  north  of 
the  Caucasus.)  The  area  of  the  continent  as  thus  defined  is  about 
3,850,000  square  miles,  or  about  one-fourteenth  of  the  total  land 
surface  of  the  globe. 

Several  great  physical  regions  may  be  distinguished.  In  the 
north  of  Ireland  and  in  the  nortji  of  Scotland,  in  Scandinavia  and 
in  Finland,  are  the  remains  of  an  ancient  Archaean  land  which  has 
been  much  worn  down,  and  of  which,  as  the  result  of  extensive 
fracturing,  many  parts  have  sunk  beneath  the  level  of  the  sea.  - 
This  region,  which  has  been  glaciated  within  recent  times,  is 
bordered  in  places  by  a  peripheral  zone  of  low  land,  built  up  in 
part  by  the  debris  brought  down  by  the  northern  glaciers,  and 
in  part  by  the  alluvium  deposited  by  Alpine  rivers.  To  this  peri- 
pheral zone  belong  the  Low  Countries  and  the  North  German  Plain. 
Further  to  the  south,  there  lies  a  great  zone  of  ancient  massifs^ 
These  include  the  Central  Plateau  of  France,  the  Iberian  Meseta, 
and  the  Bohemian  Block,  along  with  fragments  of  the  Armorican 
Range,  which  at  one  time  extended  from  the  south  of  Ireland, 
through  the  south-west  of  England,  and  through  Brittany  to  the 
Central  Plateau,  and  such  remnants  of  the  ancient  Variscan 
Range  as  the  Ardennes,  the  Vosges,  and  the  Rhine  massif  of 
Germany.  Within  the  barriers  formed  by  these  ancient  massifs 
there  are  great  areas  in  which  Secondary  and  Tertiary  rocks  have 
been  deposited.     Some  of  these  areas  are  adjacent  to  the  lowlands 

29 


/ 


30  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

already  mentioned,  and  along  with  them  form  the  great  European] 
Plain,  which  extends  from  eastern  England,  through  France,' 
Belgium,  Holland,  and  Germany  into  Russia. 

In  the  south  of  Europe,  lies  the  most  conspicuous  feature  in  its 
geography — the_greai;_S3^tem  of  folded  mountains  which  includesj 
the  Pyrenees,  the  Alps  and  the  Apennines,  the  Carpathians,  the 
Balkans,  and  the  Caucasus. 

East  of  the  regions  already  mentioned,  and  in  a  sense  apart  froi 
them,    is    the    Russian_massif,_  consisting   of   older   sedimentary 
rocks,  which  lie  horizontally,  and  which  have  been  little  affected  b] 
those  great  tectonic  movements  that  influenced  so  profoundly  the^ 
geography  of  the  remainder  of  the  continent. 

Off  the  north-west  coast  of  Europe  the  continental  shelf  has  a 

^:      wide  extension,  its  seaward   limit   running  from  the  Norwegian 

wvjvjj^coast,  by  the  west  of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  to  the  south-east  corner 

of  the  Bay  of  Biscay.     Within  this  area  the  floor  of  the  sea  has 

nowhere   a  greater   depth  than   one  hundred   fathoms.     In   the 

Mediterranean  region,  on  the  other  hand,  the  mountain  ranges 

border  a  sea  whose  floor,  except  in  the  Adriatic,  sinks  rapidly 

to  a  depth  of  1,000  fathoms  and  more. 

y  Climate. — frhe  climate  of  Europe  is  detenmnedJSLainlyiJby^^ 

^    ^.'^  jgLtitude,  and  its%)osition  on  the  western  side  of  a  great  land  mass^ 

In  winter,  the  vicinity  of  the  Atlantic  coast  is  warmed  by  westerly 

and  south-westerly  winds  from  the  ocean,  and  the  isotherms  run 

N.N.W.  to  S.S.E.,  being  turned  eastwards  in  the  Mediterranean 

region,  along  the  northern  borders  of  which  they  are  somewhat 

closely  crowded  together.     In  the  interior  of  the  continent  the  trend 

is  rather  N.W.  to  S.E.,  but  the  generalrule  h9lds  good  that  t^mgg^i^ 

ature  decreases  jrQmjwe§lio.east_atjthissea*§bn  of  the  year,  except 

in  the  Mediterranean  region,  where  the  more  southerly  latitude,  the 

shelter  from  northerly  winds  afforded  by  the  mountains,  and  the 

modifying  influence  of  the  sea,  together  tend  to  prevent  a  marked  ' 

decrease.     In  summer  the  conditions  are  reversed,   the  coastal 

districts,  under  the  influence  of  oceanic  winds,  remaining  cool,  while 

the   interior   becomes   rapidly   heated.     In    July,  the   isotherms, 

outside  of  the  Mediterranean  region,  run  W.S.W.  to  E.N.E.,  and 

emneratnre  thus  jiicreases  from  west  to  east,  in  which  direction 


A 


A 


r    also,  as  is  obvious,  there  is  an  increase  in  the  range  between  the 
temperature  of  winter  and  that  of  summer. 


J 


1 

^ 

.  Iv 

f  y    \ 

I 

i 

V 


i^ 


V 


32  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

The  following  figures  illustrate  these  variations  : — 


n 


Place. 

January 
mean. 

July 
mean. 

Range. 

Cambridge 

37-6°F. 

61-5°F. 

23-9  °F 

Utrecht 

341 

62-6 

28-5 

Hanover 

327 

631 

30-4 

Berlin 

31-3 

64-5 

33-2 

Posen 

29-3 

65-5 

36-2 

Warsaw 

25-9 

65-8 

39-9 

(These  places  all  lie  within  half  a  degree  of  the  52nd  parallel,] 
and  the  altitude  in  no  case  exceeds  400  feet.) 

The  following  figures  indicate  the  more  equable  character  of  th( 
Mediterranean  region  : — 


Place. 

January 
mean. 

July 
mean. 

Ranee. 

Murcia 

50-2°F. 

78-8°F. 

28-6°F 

Catania 

51-4 

79-5 

28-1 

Athens 

48-7 

80-6 

31-9 

Smyrna 

45-6 

80-2 

34-6 

In  January,  the  coldest  month  of  the  year,  practically  the  whole 
continent  lies  between  the  isotherms  of  50°  F.  in  the  south  and 
0°F.  in  the  north  ;  in  July,  the  warmest  month,  the  range  of  the 
isotherms  is  from  80°  F.  in  the  south  to  about  50°  F.  in  the  north. 
The  summers  are  therefore  waim  in  the  north  and  centre  of  Europe 
and  hot  in  the  south-east  and  in  the  Mediterranean  region,  while 
the  winters  are  cold  all  over  the  continent,  except  in  the  countries 
along  the  central  part  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  where  they  are 
cool,  and  on  the  Mediterranean,  where  they  are,  as  a  rule, 
somewhat  milder. 

Three  regions  may  be  recognised  in  respect  to  the  period  of  the  year 
in  which  the  greatest  amount  of  precipitation  takes  place.    In  the 

/     interior  of  the  continent  the  rainfall  0(;;rnr^£hipflyjjvmng^  fhp  c;nmmpr 

m^n^h^  when  moisture-bearing  winds  from  the  ocean  aresuclceS' 
into  the  low-pressure  area,  which  at  that  season  of  the  year  lies  over  J 
the  Eurasiatic  land  mass.  On  the  AjJaiiti£_coast^  lands,  however, 
^  the  heaviest  precipitation  is  in  aiitumn  when  the  sea  has  lost  little 
of  its  heat  and  evaporation  is  proceeding  almost  as  in  summer,! 
but  when  the  land  is  cooling  rapidly  and  causing  condensation  to] 
take  place.  The  Mediterranean  region,  again,  has  its  rainfall  in! 
the  winter  half  of  the  year,  when  it  is  under  the  influence  of  thej 


EUROPE  33 

westerly  winds ;  in  the  summer  months  the  north-east  trade  wind 
system  gradually  extends  over  it,  and  the  winds,  blowing  off  the 
land  and  towards  lower,  and  so  warmer,  latitudes,  are  dry.  ._ 

(rhe  regions  of  heaviest  precipitation  in  Europe  are  either  in  the 
countries  which  border  upon  the  Atlantic  or  on  the  slopes  of  moun- 
tains which  face  the  rain-bearing  winds.)  Over  considerable  areas 
in  these  regions  there  is  a  mean  annual  precipitation  of  40  inches 
and  more,  which  decreases  in  the  less  exposed  districts  to  between 

\  30  and  40  inches.     The  greater  part  of  Central  Europe  has  between 

I  20  and  30  inches,  but  in   the  north-east  and  south-east  of  the 

\  continent  there  is  less  than  20  inches. 

j      Vegetation. — The  natural  vegetative  regions  of  Europe  need  oniy  | 
be  mentioned  here,  as  they  have  been  so  greatly  altered  by  the  hand^^ 
of  man.  In  the  extreme  north  there  is  tundra  which  soon  passes  into«<'~V^ 

;  the  poor  coniferous  forest  of  high  latitudes.  About  the  60th  parallel  ^  i^ 
this  coniferous  forest  begins  to  merge  into  the  deciduous  summer^   \ 
green  forest  of  Central  Europe.    In  the  Mediterranean  region  ever-      \jt 
green  trees  of  a  sclerophyllous  type  grow  on  the  lowlands,  and 
deciduous   trees   on   the  uplands.     The   south-east   of   Russia  is 
^teppe  land. 

Of  economic  plants  barley  makes  its  way  furthest  north  and  finds 
its  extreme  limit  along  a  line  running  south-eastwards  from  about 
the  North  Cape  to  the  intersection  of  the  60th  parallel  with  the 
European  frontier.  It  is  closely  followed  by  oats,  but  wheat  cannot 
grow  beyond  the  65th  parallel  in  Norway  and  Sweden,  after  which 
its  Kmit  bends  to  the  south-east  and  enters  Russia  about  the  60th 
parallel.  Rye  has  a  somewhat  greater  extension,  and  in  Sweden 
can  be  grown  as  far  north  as  the  Arctic  Circle.  The  northern  limit 
of  maize  enters  France  in  the  south  of  Brittany  and  runs  in  a  north- 
easterly direction  as  far  as  the  Prussian  province  of  Posen,  where  it 
bends  to  the  east,  runs  through  Austria-Hungary  by  way  of 
Lemberg,  and  includes  Roumania  and  Southern  Russia.  The  vine 
has  a  limit  practically  the  same  as  that  of  maize  as  far  as  Posen. 
East  of  that  point  the  increasing  length  and  severity  of  winter  pushes 
it  to  the  south  of  the  Carpathians.  The  area  within  which  the  olive 
is  grown  is  practically  co-terminous  with  the  region  of 
Mediterranean  rainfall. 


/ 


CHAPTER  V 

THE    UNITED   KINGDOM 

The  United  Kingdom,  comprising  the  two  large  islands  of  Grea' 
Britain  and  Ireland,  along  with  about  5,000  smaller  islands  lying  of 
their  shores,  ^andsjuBQiLthe  continental j^latfonn^  off  the  north 
west  coast  of  Europe.  As  indicated  in  the  previous  chapter,  th< 
geographical  and  geological  characteristics  of  the  region  are  exceed 
ingly  varied  and  complex.  The  north  and  west  of  Great  Britain 
consist  in  the  main  of  mountainous  land  built  up  of  older  rocks, 
while  the  south  and  east  are  generally  lowlands,  in  which  the  younger 
formations  prevail.  As  these  differences  in  physical  structure 
have  had  a  great  influence  upon  the  economic  development  of  the 
whole  country,  a  more  detailed  examination  of  them  is  necessary. 
Scotland  may  be  divided  into  three  great  physical  regions — the 
Northern  Highlands,  the  Central  Lowlands,  and  the  Southern 
Uplands.  The  Central  Lowlands,  which  separate  the  first  of  these 
regions  from  the  last,  consist  of  a  j°:reat  ^ift  valkv.  caused  by  two 
lines  of  fracture,  one  running  fiom  Stonehaven  in  the  east  to-  the 
mouth  of  the  Clyde  in  the  west,  and  the  other  from  Dunbar  in  the 
east  to  Girvan  in  the  west.  The  Northern  Highlands,  which' hav( 
an  average  elevation  of  about  1,500  feet,  are  in  the  main  a  grea 
dissected  tableland,  probably  formed  of  Cambrian  rocks,  which 
have  been  completely  altered  by  metamorphic  action.  In  tb 
Outer  Hebrides  and  on  the  west  coast,  ancient  Archaean  rocks  an 
pre-Cambrian  sandstones  appear  ;  in  the  central  part  of  the  High-  . 
lands  there  are  considerable  areas  of  intrusive  granite,  and  in  th^ 
Inner  Hebrides  extensive  volcanic  outpourings  of  Tertiary  age. 
In  Caithness  in  the  extreme  north,  and  along  the  eastern  margin 
of  the  Highlands  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Moray  Firth,  there  is  afl 
low-lying  coastal  sill  of  varying  width,  formed  mainly  of  Old  Red" 
Sandstone.  This  lowland  area  broadens  out  in  north-east  Scotland, 
but  is  there  composed  in  the  main  of  rocks  similar  to  those  of  th^ 
Highlands.  The  Southern  Uplands  consist  of  Silurian  rocks,  and 
like  the  Northern  Highlands,  their  structure  is  that  of  a  dissecte 
tableland,  but  their  average  height  is  less,  and  probably  does  no 

34 


I 

h  . 

i 


THE    UNITED   KINGDOM  35 

exceed  1,000  feet.  The  Central  Lowlands,  which  have  been  let 
down  between  these  two  ancient  masses,  and  folded  in  the  process, 
are  generally  covered  with  Old  Red  Sandstone  and  Carboniferous 
rocks,  except  in  the  upland  districts,  which  owe  their  formation  to 
volcanic  matter  ejected  in  Carboniferous  times. 

England  is  divided  into  twcLj^rydi^ei^nt  physicaLxegiflll^  by 
a  height  of  land  known  as  the^olitic  escarpment,  which  extends 
from  iPortland  Island,  by  the  Cotswolds,  to  the  North  Yorkshire 
Moors.  To  the  north  and  west  of  this  escarpment  lie  the  great 
Palaeozoic  areas  of  the  country,  while  to  the  south  and  east  of  it 
are  the  Secondary  and  Tertiary  formations.  The  Palaeozoic  areas 
— the  Pennine  Range,  the  Lake  District^^^e  Welsh  Upland,  anT" 
the  peninsula  of  Devon  and  Cornwall — are  united  by  the  Central 
Plain,  which  lies  between  them  and  the  oolitic  escarpment.  The 
Pennine  range  was  built  up  of  folded  Carboniferous  rocks, — Moun- 
tain Limestone,  MiUstone  Grit,  and  Coal  Measures, — but  denu- 
dation has  removed  the  Coal  Measures,  and  in  many  places  the 
MiUstone  Grit,  from  the  upper  parts  of  the  range.  The  Coal 
Measures,  however,  appear  on  both  flanks,  in  Lancashire  on  the 
west,  and  in  Northumberland  and  Durham,  Yorkshire,  Derbyshire, 
and  Nottinghamshire  on  the  east.  The  Lake  District  is  a  dome- 
shaped  uplift,  formed  of  Silurian  and  igneous  rocks,  with  a  band 
of  Coal  Measures  along  the  north-west  coast.  The  Welsh  Upland 
is  a  dissected  plateau  of  Cambrian  and  Silurian  rocks,  strengthened 
in  places  by  intrusive  igneous  material.  In  the  south,  in  a  synclinal 
trough  in  the  Silurian  rock,  there  are  areas  of  Old  Red  Sandstone 
and  Carboniferous  rocks  within  the  last  of  which  hes  the  coal  basin 
of  South  Wales.  The  peninsula  of  Devon  and  Cornwall  consists  of  a 
synchnal  trough  in  the  Old  Red  Sandstone,  which  appears  in  the 
north  along  the  Bristol  Channel,  and  in  the  south  along  the  English 
Channel  where  there  are  also  considerable  areas  of  intrusive  granitic 
rocks.  The  country  between  these  outcrops  of  Old  Red  Sandstone 
is  covered  with  lower  Carboniferous  rocks,  which,  however,  do  not 
contain  coal.  The  Central  Plain,  which  connects  these  various 
Upland  regions,  is  composed  in  the  main  of  Permian,  Tnassic,  and 
Liassic  rocks,  though  in  some  parts  of  the  south  the  Coal  Measures 
come  to  the  surface.  From  the  ooUtic  escarpment,  which  bounds 
the  Central  Plain,  the  land  slopes  gently  away  eastwards  and 
southwards  across  the  Jurassic  belt  to  the  foot  of  the  Cretaceous 

3— (1326) 


36  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

escarpment,  which  runs  from  the  Dorset  Downs,  by  the  Marlborough 
Downs,  the  Chilterns,  the  East  AngHan  Heights,  and  the  Lincoln- 
shire and  Yorkshire  Wolds,  to  Flamborough  Head.  This  escarpment 
bounds  the  chalk  country  which  extends  eastward  and  southward 
until  it  is  overlaid  by  the  Tertiary  gravels  and  clays  of  the  London 
and  Hampshire  basins. 

Ireland  may  be  described  as  basin-shaped,  since  it  consists  of 
centraTplain,  more  or  less  surroun3edT)y  a  rim  of  mountains.  In 
the  north  and  south  these  mountains  cover  wide  areas,  but  in  th 
east  and  west  they  are  more  restricted  and  less  continuous.  In 
the  north-west,  where  they  follow  the  fold  lines  of  the  Scottish 
Highlands,  they  consist  of  crystalline  and  granitic  rocks,  while  in 
the  south-east  of  Ulster,  where  they  were  once  continuous  with  the 
Southern  Uplands,  and  in  Leinster,  where  they  formed  part  of  the 
same  mountain  area  as  Wales,  they  are  of  Cambrian  and  Silurian 
rocks  which  have  been  pierced,  however,  by  the  large  granitic 
masses  that  now  give  them  their  most  characteristic  features.  The 
Antrim  Plateau,  in  the  north-east,  is  built  up  of  layers  of  basalt. 
In  the  south  and  south-west,  where  the  mountains  have  been 
folded  along  the  same  lines  as  those  of  south-western  England, 
the  ridges  consist  of  Old  Red  Sandstone,  while  in  the  intervening 
valleys  Carboniferous  rocks  appear.  The  low-lying  Central  Plain^ 
formed  by  the  denudation  of  the  upper  layers  of  the  Carboniferoui 
rocks  which  once  covered  the  greater  part  of  Ireland,  is  underlain 
by  a  floor  of  Carboniferous  Limestone  which,  in  fact,  only  comes 
to  the  surface  in  a  few  places,  as  it  is  generally  concealed  beneath 
a  covering  of  glacial  drift.  Over  the  whole  of  Ireland,  indeed,  the 
drift  is  widespread,  and,  by  obstructing  the  watercourses,  has 
done  much  to  aid  in  the  formation  of  the  bogs  which  are  so 
characteristic  a  feature  of  Irish  scenery. 

Climate. — The  British  Isles  fall  within  the  climatic  area  of  North 
Western  Europe,  and  lie  in  the  belt  of  westerly  and  ^nnth-wet;tpjl3^ 
winds^  which  modify  alike  the  heai_.of_suinmer  and  the  x:old  of 
\dnter.  In  summer,  the  land  is  heated  by  the  direct  insolation  of 
the  sun,  which  is  then  north  of  the  equator,  and  temperature 
decreases  in  a  northerly  direction.  Owing  to  the  cooHng  influence 
of  the  westerly  winds  blowing  from  the  ocean,  however,  Ireland 
has  at  this  season  of  the  year  a  temperature  about  2°F.  lower  than 
that  part  of  Great  Britain  which  lies  within  the  same  parallels  of 

J 


IMTISl  ISLES 


i  1 


After  the  Oxford  Wall  Maps, 

flAJNFALL    OF   THE    BRITISH   JSLES 


by  permission 


38  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

latitude  ;  while  places  on  the  west  coast  of  Great  Britain  have  a 
somewhat  lower  temperature  than  corresponding  places  on  the 
east  coast.  In  July,  the  warmest  month  of  the  year,  the 
isotherms  range  from  63°  F.  in  south-eastern  England  to  55°  F. 
in  the  north  of  Scotland.  In  winter,  on  the  other  hand,  when  the 
sun  is  south  of  the  equator,  the  British  Isles  receive  the  greater  part 
of  their  warmth  not  from  it  directly,  but  from  the  westerly  and 
south-westerly  winds,  which  'reach  them  from  the  Atlantic. 
Accordingly,  the  western  coasts,  which  are  most  exposed  to  these 
winds,  receive  the  greatest  benefit  from  them,  and  temperature 
decreases,  not  from  south  to  north,  but  from  west  to  east.  At 
this  season  of  the  year,  therefore,  Ireland  has  a  mean  temperature 
several  degrees  higher  than  that  of  corresponding  parts  of  Great 
Britain,  and  the  west  coasts  of  both  islands  are  warmer  than  the 
east  coasts.  In  January,  the  coldest  month  of  the  year,  the  mean 
sea-level  temperature  ranges  from  44°  F.  in  the  south-west  of  Ireland 
to  38°  F.  in  the  south-east  of  England,  while  the  isotherm  of  40°  F. 
runs  from  Cape  Wrath  to  the  Isle  of  Wight.  The  upland  regions 
are,  of  course,  colder  at  all  seasons  of  the  year  than  the  sea-level 
temperatures  indicate.  On  the  whole,  however,  it  may  be  said 
that  in  the  British  Isles  the  summers  are  warm  and  the  winters 
cool. 
(The  western  parts  of  the  British  Isles  have  generally  a  heavier 
V  precipitation  than  the  eastern  parts.  \  This  is  due  in  the  first 
place  to  their  more  exposed  position  irrrelation  to  the  winds  blow- 
ing from  the  Atlantic,  which  is  the  great  source  of  moisture  ;  and 
in  the  second  place  to  the  presence  of  mountain  masses,  which 
force  the  winds  upwards,  so  that  they  are  cooled,  and  the  moisture, 
which  they  carry,  condensed.  The  eastern  parts  of  the  country, 
on  the  other  hand,  lie  in  the  rain  shadow  cast  by  the  mountains, 
and  have,  therefore,  a  much  lower  rainfall.  Generally  speaking, 
it  may  be  said  that  on  the  mountainous  districts  of  Ireland  and 
of  the  west  of  Great  Britain  there  is  a  mean  annual  rainfall  of  at 
least  40  inches,  while  on  the  lowlands,  in  both  countries,  there 
is  less  than  that  amount.  But  parts  of  the  Western  Highlands, 
of  the  Lake  District,  and  of  Wales,  have  as  much  as  60,  80,  and 
even  100  inches.  The  greater  part  of  the  Irish  plain,  and  the 
Scottish  Lowlands,  have  between  30  and  40  inches ;  the  Central 
Plain  of  England,  and  much  of  the  east  coast  of  Great  Britain,  have  m 


THE   UNITED   KINGDOM  Jjy 

between  25  and  30  inches,  while  the  eastern  counties  of  England 
have  less  than  25  inches. 

General  Considerations. — In  order  to  realise  the  extent  to 
which  geographical  conditions  have  contributed  to  estabhsh  the 
British  Isles  in  the  pre-eminent  position  which  they  occupy  in  the 
economic  world  of  the  present  day,  certain  considerations  of  a  general 
nature  must  be  taken  into  account.  In  the  first  place,  the  posi- 
tion of  the  British  Isles  upon  the  continental  platform  has  been 
of  importance  in  several  ways.  The  islands  were,  at  one  time, 
connected  with  the  Continent,  and  even  after  land  connection  ceased 
they  were  easily  accessible  from  it.  European  flora  and  fauna 
entered  during  the  earlier  period,  and  European  civilisation  during 
the  latter.  But  along  with  accessibility  there  was  detachment,  and 
even  a  certain  amount  of  isolation,  which  allowed  the  island  people 
to  develop  along  Unes  of  their  own,  free  to  a  greater  extent  than  most 
continental  countries  from  the  danger  of  foreign  invasion.  Again, 
the  insular  and  indented  character  of  Britain  would,  in  any  case, 
have  made  communication  by  sea  relatively  easy,  but  the  high  water 
in  nearly  every  river  estuary  around  the  coast,  caused  by  the  heaping 
up  of  the  tidal  wave  upon  the  continental  platform,  rendered  many 
comparatively  inland  places,  seaports  of  some  importance  in  early 
times.  With  the  increased  size  of  ships,  a  number  of  these  inland 
ports  have  decayed  as  such.  On  the  other  hand,  some  of  the  princi- 
pal seaports  of  the  country,  which  have  grown  up  near  the  mouths  of 
rivers,  are  only  accessible  to  the  larger  vessels  of  the  present  day 
at  times  of  high  water. 

In  the  second  place,  although  the  British  Isles  cover  but  a  small 
area,  geological  structure  and  land  form  are  exceedingly  varied 
and  climatic  contrasts  are  well  marked.  The  nimiber  of  natural 
regions  is,  therefore,  large,  and  as  many  of  them  are  well  endowed 
with  regard  to  soil  and  climate,  or  mineral  wealth,  the  geographical 
conditions  for  a  wide  range  of  economic  activities  are  present. 
Moreover,  the  actual  distribution  of  natural  regions  has  proved 
favourable  to  economic  development.  Those  regions  which 
are  most  suitable  for  agriculture,  and,  therefore,  best  fitted  for 
man  in  the  earlier  stages  of  civilisation,  lie  nearest  to  the  Con- 
tinent, and  are  most  accessible  from  it.  Those,  on  the  other 
hand,  whose  economic  resources  could  only  be  utilised  by  a  fairly 
advanced  people,   and  whose  topography  would  in  some  cases  I 


40  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

have  actually  retarded  progress  in  its  earlier  stages,  lie  distant 
from  the  Continent,  and  were  for  long  but  scantily  populated. 

Lastly,  account  must  be  taken  of  the  international  position 
of  Great  Britain.  Before  the  geographical  renaissance  of  the 
fifteenth  century  the  country  practically  lay  upon  the  outer  circum- 
ference of  the  known  world.  But,  after  the  discovery  of  the  Cape 
route  to  India,  and  of  America,  its  position  became  central  rather 
than  peripheral.  By  taking  advantage  of  this  relative  change  in 
position,  especially  during  the  critical  period  of  the  eighteenth 
century,  Britain  became  a  trading  and  colonial  power.  This  not 
only  gave  it  the  profits  of  a  great  entrepot  trade,  but  aided  the 
development  of  manufactures  by  faciUtating  the  importation  of 
raw  material  from,  and  the  exportation  of  manufactured  goods  to, 
all  parts  of  the  globe. 

Natural  Regions. — Geological  structure,  land  form,  and  climatic 
conditions  all  serve  to  mark  off  fairly  well  the  major  natural  regions 
of  the  British  Isles.  The  areas  of  ancient  rocks  are  generally  uplands, 
and  being  uplands  have  a  higher  rainfall  and  a  lower  temperature 
than  the  neighbouring  lowlands,  with  the  result  that  their  vegetation 
and,  to  a  certain  extent,  their  economic  development,  are  different. 
But  each  upland  region  may  be  considered  separately,  as  no  two 
of  them  are  exactly  alike.  The  Northern  Highlands  are  of  older 
rock  than  the  Southern  Uplands,  their  elevation  is  greater,  and 
their  climate  more  inclement.  (The  Central  Lowlands  may  be  dis- 

//ftinguished  from  both,  not  only  by  their  physical  character  and 
//climatic  conditions,  but  by  their  mineral  wealth  and  economic 
M  potentiahtiesj  The  Pennine  Chain  differs  entirely  in  structure 
'  from  the  otHer  Palaeozoic  areas  of  Great  Britain,  while  each  of  the 
great  coalfields,  which  lie  upon  its  flanks,  has,  as  a  result  of  differ- 
ences in  geological  environment,  climate,  or  place  relations,  a  well- 
marked  individuaUty  of  its  own.  The  Lake  District,  the  Welsh 
Upland,  and  the  peninsula  of  Devon  and  Cornwall  present  contrasts 
to  one  another  in  respect  to  structure,  mineral  wealth,  and  climate. 
The  Central  Plain,  which  unites  these  upland  regions,  is  itself  a 
lowland  which  must  be  subdivided  in  order  that  due  attention  may 
be  given  to  the  Carboniferous  districts  within  it.  The  south  and 
east  of  England,  though  generally  lowland,  do  not  form  one  natural 
region.  The  soils  of  the  Jurassic  area  differ  from  those  of  the 
Cretaceous  area,  and  the  economic  development  of  the  two  regions 


NATURAL  REGIONS  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN 


42  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

differs  likewise.  In  the  Cretaceous  area,  moreover,  the  agricultural 
conditions  of  different  districts  are  profoundly  modified  by  the 
distribution  of  the  glacial  drift.  Lastly,  the  Tertiary  basins  of 
London  and  Hampshire,  and  the  lands  adjoining  the  estuary  of  the 
Severn,  have  had  their  past  history  and  present  conditions  so 
profoundly  modified  by  their  position  and  place  relations  that  each 
must  be  considered  apart  from  the  others.  In  Ireland,  the  Central 
Plain  and  each  of  the  mountain  masses  by  which  it  is  surrounded 
may  be  considered  as  separate  natural  regions,  but  it  is  perhaps 
better  to  recognise  three  belts,  a  northern  upland,  a  central  lowland, 
and  a  southern  upland ;  and  to  subdivide  each  of  these  into  two 
parts,  an  eastern  and  a  western,  the  division  being  based  partly 
upon  physical  structure  and  partly  upon  climatic  conditions. 

Scotland 

The  Northern  Highlands. — The  whole  of  the  country  which 
lies  north  of  the  line  connecting  Stonehaven  with  the  mouth  of 
the  Clyde  may  be  divided  into  two  parts :  the  highlands  proper, 
and  the  coastal  sill.  The  mountainous  character  of  the  first  of 
V'  these  regions,  the  infertile  soil  into  which  its  crystalline  rocks 
V  weather  down,  the  heavy  rainfall,  to  which  it  is  exposed,  and  the 
comparatively  low  temperature  to  which  its  altitude  subjects  it,  J 
combine  to  render  it  one  in  which  little  cultivation  is  possible.  In  ■ 
the  more  favoured  localities,  such  as  the  sheltered  valleys,  oats  and 
potatoes  are  the  main  crops,  but  the  yield  per  acre  is  generally 
below  the  average.  Even  for  pastoral  purposes  the  land  is  not 
altogether  suited,  and  the  density  of  both  cattle  and  sheep  is,  and 
has  apparently  always  been,  below  the  average  for  Great  Britain. 
The  counties  of  Sutherland,  Ross  and  Cromarty,  Inverness,  and 
Argyll,  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  region.  With  14  per  cent, 
of  the  area  of  Great  Britain,  they  have  less  than  2  per  cent,  of 
the  arable  land  and  permanent  grass,  2  per  cent,  of  its  cattle,  and 
7  per  cent,  of  its  sheep.  During  the  last  thirty  years  the  arable 
land  has  decreased  from  288,000  acres  to  270,000  acres,  which  is 
less  than  the  average  rate  of  decrease  for  the  whole  of  Great  Britain  ; 
while  permanent  grass  has  increased  from  126,000  acres  to  183,000 
acres,  which  is  above  the  average  rate  of  increase  for  the  same 
area.     On  the  other  hand,  cattle  have  decreased  by  5  per  cent. 


I 


THE  UNITED  KINGDOM  43 


and  sheep  by  17  per  cent,  during  the  same  period — a  result  of  the 
conversion  of  considerable  areas  of  mountain  grazing  land  into 
deer  forests. 

On  the  coastal  sill,  with  its  lower  elevation,  better  soil,  higher 
temperature  in  summer,  and  moderate  rainfall,  the  conditions  are 
much  more  favourable  to  agriculture.  Oats  are  extensively  grown, 
barley  is  cultivated  in  places,  and  large  numbers  of  cattle  are 
raised  for  the  English  market.  Along  the  coast  there  are  a  number 
of  towns  which  serve  partly  as  centres  for  the  agricultural  districts, 
and  partly  as  bases  for  the  fleets  which  frequent  the  fishing  grounds 
of  the  Moray  Firth  and  the  North  Sea.  Of  these  the  most  im- 
portant is  Aberdeen  which  is  second  to  Grimsby  alone  among  the 
trawling  ports  of  the  British  Isles.  It  is  also  engaged  in  the  export 
of  granite. 

The  Highland  region,  as  a  whole,  is  obviously  unsuitable  for  the 
development  of  manufacturing  activity.  There  is  no  coal,  and, 
although  there  is  in  the  aggregate  a  considerable  amount  of  water- 
power  at  present  running  waste,  there  are  few  places  where  1,000 
horse-power  could  be  continuously  maintained  throughout  the  year. 
Works  for  the  extraction  of  aluminium  by  electrical  processes  have, 
however,  been  established  within  recent  years  at  Foyers  and  Bal- 
lachuHsh  in  Glenmore,  the  electricity  being  generated  by  a  natural 
waterfall  in  the  first  case,  and  by  an  artificial  one  in  the  second. 
Scattered  over  the  Highlands  there  are  numerous  distilleries,  which 
are,  to  some  extent,  dependent  for  their  raw  material  upon  the 
oats  grown  in  the  vicinity,  and  owe  at  least  part  of  their  success 
to  the  flavour  imparted  to  the  whisky  by  the  peat. 

The  Central  Lowlands  are  economically  the  jnost  important 
part  of  Scotland,  and  contain  about  75  per  cent,  of  the  population  of 
the  whole  country.  The  soil  varies  in  fertility,  but  is  generally 
very  productive  when  of  alluvial  or  glacial  origin,  or  when  derived 
from  Old  Red  Sandstone  or  volcanic  ash.  The  rainfall  decreases 
from  over  40  inches  in  the  west  of  the  region  to  less  than  30 
inches  in  the  east,  ^ence,  from  the  agricultural  point  of  view,  a 
distinction  may  be  drawn  between  the  western  and  eastern  counties. 
In  the  former,  over  two-thirds  of  the  land  is  pastoral,  and  less 
than  one-tenth  is  devoted  to  cereals ;  while  in  the  latter  just  over 
one-half  is  pastoral  and  nearly  one-fifth  is  under  cereals,  Fife 
and  Haddington,  the  two  driest  counties  in  the  Lowlands,  together 


44  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

contributing  one-third  of  the  wheat^crop  of  Scotland.  raff,]£- 
raising  and  dairying  are  characteristic  of  the  west,  whiie-%heep 
farming  is  more  important  in  the  east.  Fruit  is  cultivated  in 
many  localities  where  the  environment  is  favourable,  but  especially 
in  Clydesdale  and  Strathmore.  Roots  are  grown  chiefly  in  the 
east. 

On  account  of  its  more  favourable  climatic  conditions,  the  eastern 
part  of  the  Lowlands  was  the  first  to  be  settled ;  and  it  remained 
the  more  densely  populated  until  the  development  of  the  great 
mineral  districts  in  the  west  led  to  the  growth  of  large  industrial 
communities  there. 

The  coalfields  of  Scotland  are  practically  confined  to  the  Central 
Lowlands,  which  produce  about  15  per  cent,  of  the  total  output 
of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  Carboniferous  strata  were  deposited 
over  the  greater  part  of  the  rift  valley,  but  subsequent  folding  in 
different  directions  led  to  the  formation  of  a  number  of  basins  in 
which  the  coal  was  preserved  at  a  time  when  it  was  being  removed 
by  denudation  from  the  surrounding  uplands.  Of  these  basins  the 
most  important  are  the  Ayrshire,  the  Lanarkshire  (which  includes 
the  coalfields  of  Linlithgow  and  Stirhng)  and  the  Fifeshire  and 
Lothian.  The  importance  of  the  Scottish  coalfields  is  due  in  part 
to  the  fact  that  they  contain  two  groups  of  coal-seams,  the  lower 
one  lying  in  the  Carboniferous  Limestone,  and  the  upper  one  lying 
in  the  same  geological  horizon  as  the  true  Coal  Measures  of  England. 
The  Ayrshire  basin,  with  an  output  of  about  10  per  cent,  of  the 
whole  output  of  Scotland  (which  is  just  over  40,000,000  tons), 
stretches  along  the  Firth  of  Clyde  from  Ardrossan  to  Ayr,  and 
extends  inland  for  a  distance  of  twelve  or  fifteen  miles.  Much  of 
the  coal  produced  on  this  field  is  shipped  from  the  ports  of 
Ardrossan,  Irvine,  Troon,  and  Ayr,  to  the  Belfast  district  of  Ireland. 
The  Lanarkshire  coalfields,  along  with  which  may  be  included  those 
of  Renfrew  and  Dumbarton,  are  at  present  the  most  important 
in  Scotland,  and  account  for  nearly  45  per  cent,  of  the  total  output. 
The  bulk  of  the  coal  is  obtained  from  the  upper  Coal  Measures, 
which  extend  from  Glasgow  eastwards  to  the  borders  of  Linlithgow, 
and  southwards  as  far  as  Stonehouse  and  Carluke.  The  coal,  which  m 
does  not  he  far  below  the  surface,  is  easily  worked,  and  is  of  great  f 
value  for  smelting  and  steam  purposes,  while  some  of  it  is  especially 
valuable  for  the  manufacture  of  gas.    The  coal  seams  of  the  lower  i 


I 


I 


THE   UNITED   KINGDOM  45 


rboniferous  strata  have  not  been  extensively  worked  in  Lanark- 
shire ;  and  in  Dumbarton  and  Renfrew,  where  the  greater  part  of 
the  output  is  obtained  from  them,  they  do  not  appear  to  be  nearly 
as  rich  as  those  of  the  upper  Coal  Measures.  The  Linlithgow  and 
Stirling  fields,  which  belong  to  the  same  basin  as  those  of  Lanark- 
shire, have  an  output  of  about  5  per  cent,  and  7  per  cent,  respectively 
of  the  whole  of  Scotland.  Up  to  the  present  time  the  bulk  of  the 
coal  has  been  obtained  from  the  upper  Coal  Measures,  but  recent 
developments  have  been  chiefly  directed  to  the  exploitation  of  the 
seams  in  the  Carboniferous  Limestone.  In  the  east  of  the  Lowlands, 
the  coal  seams  of  Fife  dip  under  the  Firth  of  Forth  and  reappear 
along  the  coasts  of  Edinburgh  and  Haddington,  and  it  is  believed 
that  the  field  is  continuous  under  the  Forth.  The  Fifeshire  coalfield 
has  recently  assumed  considerable  importance,  and  the  output  of 
coal,  which  is  obtained  from  both  geological  horizons,  now  amounts 
to  over  20  per  cent,  of  the  total  output  of  the  country.  Much  of  it  is 
exported  from  Methil  and  Burntisland  to  Scandinavia  and  the 
Baltic  countries.  The  Edinburgh  and  Haddington  field  has  hitherto 
played  a  less  important  part  than  the  Fifeshire  field,  and 
accounts  for  rather  less  than  10  per  cent,  of  the  total  production 
of  Scotland ;  but  within  the  last  few  years  a  number  of  new  pits 
have  been  sunk,  and  considerable  quantities  of  coal  are  now 
exported  to  the  Continent  from  Leith.  In  1904  it  was  estimated 
that  the  net  available  quantity  of  coal  remaining  in  Scotland 
amounted  to  15,700,000,000  tons.  Of  this,  about  8,700,000,000 
tons  lie  in  Fifeshire,  under  the  Firth  of  Forth,  and  in  Midlothian 
and  Haddington.  In  Lanarkshire  itself  the  net  available  quantity 
was  2,600,000,000  tons,  which,  at  the  rate  of  consumption  now 
prevaihng,  will  be  exhausted  within  a  century  and  a  half.  It  is 
very  probable,  therefore,  that,  within  a  comparatively  short  time, 
the  chief  coal-producing  districts  will  be  found  in  the  east  of 
the  Central  Lowlands,  and  not  improbable  that,  within  a  some- 
what longer  period,  there  will  be  a  gradual  transference  of 
manufacturing  industry  from  the  west  to  the  east,  so  that  the 
latter  region  will  once  again  regain  at  least  something  of  its 
ancient  pre-eminence. 

Bituminous  oil  shales  occur  in  the  Calciferous  Sandstones  under- 
lying the  Carboniferous  Limestone  series.  These  shales  are  worked 
at  the  present  time  mainly  in  Linlithgowshire,  and  oil,  wax.  and 


46  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

ammonia  are  obtained  by  distillation.  Broxburn  and  West  Calder 
are  important  centres  of  this  industry. 

Ironstone  occurs  with  coal  in  many  places,  and  for  long  was 
worked  to  supply  the  iron  industries  of  the  Central  Lowlands.  The 
most  valuable  seams,  such  as  the  Blackband  ironstone,  which  could 
be  cheaply  smelted  because  of  the  large  amount  of  carbonaceous 
matter  which  it  contained,  are  practically  exhausted,  and  many 
of  the  clayband  ironstones  have  been  abandoned  on  account  of 
the  expense  of  working  them.  The  native  production  of  iron  ore 
is,  therefore,  no  longer  able  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  iron  industry. 

The  great  coalfields  of  the  Central  Lowlands,  the  large  supplies 
of  good  iron-ore  which  formerly  existed,  the  proximity  of  coal 
and  iron  to  one  another,  and  the  accessibility  of  the  whole  region 
by  means  of  the  Forjh  and  Clyde  estuaries,  the  one  facing  Europe 
and  the  other  America,  are  conducive  to  the  great  industrial 
development  of  this  part  of  Scotland.  The  first  iron  works  to  be 
established  were  at  Falkirk,  where  ironstone,  wood  for  fuel,  and 
water-power  from  the  Carron,  were  all  obtainable,  and  for  a  time 
these  works  were  the  most  important  in  Europe.  Iron-smelting 
has  since  moved  westwards,  but  the  momentum  given  to  Falkirk 
by  that  industry  has  made  it  at  the  present  day  the  centre  of  a 
district  noted  for  its  production  of  all  kinds  of  iron  goods. 

With  the  development  of  the  use  of  coal  for  smelting  iron, 
Lanarkshire  naturally  became  the  centre  of  this  industry,  and 
among  the  towns  which  owe  their  importance  to  it  are  Coatbridge, 
Motherwell,  Wishaw,  and  Airdrie.  On  the  Ayrshire  coalfield,  where 
ironstone  could  also  at  one  time  be  obtained,  Muirkirk  and  Dairy 
are  the  centres  of  the  iron-manufacturing  industry.  These  two 
counties,  and  especially  the  first,  are  among  the  most  important 
in  the  United  Kingdom  for  the  manufacture  of  steel.  Since  the 
rapid  decline  in  the  production  of  native  ore,  the  accessibihty  of  the 
Central  Lowlands  has  rendered  easy  the  importation  of  foreign 
ore. 

In  early  times,  Glasgow  owed  its  importance  to  its  situation  on 
the  fertile  soils  of  the  Clyde  valley,  and  to  the  fact  that  it  was  at 
the  meeting  place  of  routes  from  the  north,  the  south,  and  the  east. 
Later  on,  its  position  with  regard  to  the  New  World  brought  it 
much  trade,  which  eventually  rendered  necessary  the  deepening  of 
the  river.     Thus  it  became  a  great  trading  port,  while  the  abundance 


I 


\ 


I 


THE   UNITED   KINGDOM  47 

of  coal  and  iron  in  the  neighbourhood  facihtated  the  growth  of 
shipbuilding  lower  down  the  river,  ^he  Clyde  is  now  the  chief 
shipbuilding  area  in  the  world  Mit  produces  over  30  per  cent,  of  the 
total  tonnage  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and  its  ships  are  to  be  seen 
on  every  sea.  The  principal  yards  are  at  Clydebank,  Dalmuir, 
Dumbarton,  and  Greenock. 

The  textile  industries  of  Scotland  were  originally  scattered  over 
the  whole  country.  Linen  was  manufactured  where  flax  could  be 
grown,  and  where  water  was  abundant.  The  introduction  of 
machinery  and  the  necessity  of  importing  raw  material  from  the 
Baltic  countries  have,  however,  drawn  the  industry  to  the  east  coast, 
where  it  is  established  at  Dundee,  Dunfermline,  and  elsewhere. 
Dundee  suffered  greatly  during  the  Crimean  war  by  the  suspension 
of  the  supply  of  flax  from  Russia,  and  began  to  import  jute  from 
India,  the  manufacture  of  which  has  now  become  its  leading 
industry,  although  it  has  suffered  somewhat  in  recent  years  from 
the  competition  of  the  Calcutta  mills.  Various  branches  of  the 
woollen  industry  are  carried  on  in  and  around  Alloa,  Paisley, 
Glasgow,  and  other  towns  ;  while  the  manufacture  of  thread,  which 
is  extensively  followed  in  Paisley,  is  the  chief  branch  of  the  cotton 
industry  established  in  the  Central  Lowlands. 

Among  other  industries  are  engineering  and  the  manufacture 
of  machinery,  both  of  which  are  important  pursuits  at  Glasgow, 
Greenock,  Paisley,  Dundee,  Edinburgh,  and  elsewhere.  There  are 
chemical  works  on  several  of  the  coalfields ;  some  raw  sugar  is  still 
refined  at  Greenock,  where  it  is  imported  from  the  West  Indies ; 
printing  is  an  important  industry  at  Edinburgh,  and  paper  is 
made  in  the  neighbourhood,  where  clear  water  is  abundant ;  oil- 
cloth and  hnoleum  are  manufactured  at  Kirkcaldy  ;  Dundee  obtains 
from  the  Carse  of  Gowrie  much  of  the  fruit  required  for  the 
preserves  for  which  it  is  noted.  — 

To,,  sum  up,  thifi- Central  Lowlands,  on  account  of  their  moderate 
elevation  and  easy  accessibility,  their  not  unfavourable  cHmate,  and 
their  fertile  soils,  the  stores  of  coal  which  they  still  contain,  and  the 
supplies  of  iron  which  they  once  possessed,  have  become  the  great 
agricultural  and  industrial  region  of  Scotland.  As  they  contain  the 
capital  of  the  country,  and  its  great  commercial  centres,  they 
represent  a  "  pole  of  convergence,"  drawing  people  from  all 
directions,  even  as  the  Northern  Highlands,  and,  to  a  less  extent. 


48  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

the  Southern  Uplands,  sending  people  in  all  directions,  represent 
"  poles  of  divergence." 

The  Southern  Uplands. — The  rocks  of  this  region  are  in  the 
main  Silurian,  but  in  the  east  a  belt  of  Old  Red  Sandstone  runs 
southwards  from  Dunbar  to  the  border,  and  much  of  Berwickshire 
is  upon  the  Calciferous  Sandstone.  In  the  west  there  are  granitic 
areas  and  isolated  basins  of  Triassic  rocks.  The  lower  elevation 
and  less  rigorous  climate  of  the  Uplands  cause  them  to  compare] 
favourably  with  the  Highlands.  The  hills  are  generally  covered 
with  grass  to  their  summits,  and  the  percentage  of  land  used  for 
grazing  purposes  is  high.  In  Peebles,  Selkirk,  Dumfries,  and  Kirk- 
cudbright, for  example,  over  80  per  cent,  of  the  land  is  in  pasture 
or  permanent  grass,  and  the  whole  region  constitutes  one  of  the 
great  sheep-raising  districts  of  the  United  Kingdom,  containing 
nearly  one-tenth  of  the  total  number  of  sheep  therein.  Over  the 
greater  part  of  the  Southern  Uplands,  indeed,  there  is,  on  an  average, 
one  sheep  to  each  acre  of  pasture  land.  Cattle  are  not  raised  except 
in  Wigtown  and  Kirkcudbright,  where  the  lower  elevation  of  the 
land  and  the  heavier  rainfall  lead  to  the  growth  of  pasture  more 
suitable  for  cattle  than  for  sheep.  Arable  farming  is  generally 
restricted ;  oats,  the  chief  cereal  grown,  is  cultivated  mainly  in 
the  river  valleys  and  in  the  Triassic  basins,  both  of  which  are 
frequently  covered  with  alluvium,  and  on  the  lower  lands  of  the 
Old  Red  Sandstone  and  Calciferous  Sandstone  of  Roxburgh  and  A 
Berwick.  m 

The  woollen  industry  is  more  centrahsed  in  the  Southern  Uplands 
than  in  any  other  part  of  Scotland.  This  is  due  in  part  to  the  large 
supplies  of  wool  at  hand,  and  in  part  to  the  abundance  of  water, 
both  for  power  and  for  cleansing  purposes.  The  chief  towns  engaged 
are  Hawick,  Galashiel^,^^j£dburgh,  Selkirk,  Peebles,  and  Inner 
leithen.  The  manufacture  of  tweeds  of  various  kinds  is  the  principal 
branch  of  the  industry  pursued  in  this  region. 


ENGLAND 

The  Pennine  Chain  has  played  an  important  part  in  the 
economic  development  of  Northern  England.  By  its  influence 
upon  the  climates  of  Lancashire  and  of  Yorkshire  respectively, 
and  by  acting  as  a  barrier,  though  not  an  impassable  one,  between 
the  two  counties,  it  has  differentiated  the  occupations  of  the  people 


THE   UNITED   KINGDOM  49 

living  upon  either  side  of  it.  On  its  moors  have  fed  the  sheep  whose 
wool  has  helped  to  found  the  cotton  industry  on  its  western  flank 
no  less  than  the  woollen  industry  on  its  eastern.  The  rivers  which 
flow  down  its  slopes  have  provided  power  for  both  industries 
in  the  earlier  stages  of  their  growth,  and  determined  the  sites  of 
many  of  the  more  important  towns  engaged  in  each  of  them ;  while 
from  reservoirs  upon  it  is  obtained  no  inconsiderable  part  of  the 
daily  water  supply  of  several  millions  of  people.  It  is,  therefore, 
in  its  influence  upon  neighbouring  regions  that  the  importance  of 
the  Pennine  Chain  consists.  The  limestone  districts,  which  cover 
considerable  areas  both  in  the  north  and  in  the  south,  are  in  general 
suited  for  pastoral  pursuits  alone,  though  along  the  river  valleys 
and  in  the  lowlands  they  frequently  provide  good  agricultural 
land.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  intrusive  volcanic  rocks  there 
are  numerous  lead  veins,  which  are  worked  in  different  parts 
of  the  range.  The  Millstone  Grit  generally  leads  to  the  develop- 
ment of  moorlands,  which  provide  a  somewhat  scanty  pasturage 
for  sheep. 

The  North-East  Industrial  Region. — ^The  mineral  resources 
of  this  region  constitute  the  basis  of  its  economic  activities.  Its 
coalfields  fall  into  two  distinct  groups.  The  Coal  Measures  occur 
within  an  area  defined  by  hues  drawn  from  the  mouth  of  the  Coquet 
to  Middleton  in  Teesdale,  and  from  Middleton  to  a  point  on  the 
coast  a  little  to  the  north  of  Hartlepool.  In  the  south-east  part 
of  this  area  they  are  overlain  by  Magnesian  Limestone,  but,  though 
the  coalfield  is  here  concealed,  it  has  been  proved  and  is  worked 
at  the  present  time.  It  has  been  estimated  that  the  coal 
seams  may  be  followed  under  the  sea  for  a  distance  of  three  miles 
from  the  coast.  Coal  also  occurs  in  the  Mountain  Limestone  series 
in  the  north-east  and  the  north-west  of  Northumberland,  but 
so  far  not  much  has  been  produced  in  these  districts.  The  total 
available  contents  of  the  whole  region  have  been  estimated  at 
10,780,000,000  tons,  while  the  yearly  output  at  present  averages 
54,000,000  tons.  Much  of  the  coal  is  shipped  to  London  and  other 
seaports  on  the  coast,  but,  of  course,  much  is  also  consumed  by  the 
varied  industries  of  the  region  itself. 

The  iron  industry  owes  its  origin  to  the  fact  that  ironstone  is 
found  in  the  Coal  Measures  along  with  the  coal.  The  greater  part  of 
the  native  ore  used  at  the  present  time  comes,  however,  from  the 


50  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

Cleveland  Hills,  which  produce  about  40  per  cent,  of  the  output  of 
Great  Britain.  In  the  valley  of  the  Esk,  near  Whitby,  there  are 
two  seams  of  ore  which  increase  in  thickness  towards  the  north, 
and  unite  to  form  the  main  Cleveland  seam,  from  which  the  bulk 
of  the  ore  is  at  present  obtained.  This  ore  contains  phosphorus, 
and  could  not  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  until  the  discovery 
of  the  basic  process,  by  which  lime  is  added  to  the  lining  of 
the  Bessemer  converter  or  to  the  Siemens  hearth  to  form  a  base 
with  which  the  phosphorus  may  combine.  Even  at  the  present 
time  phosphoric  ores  cannot  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  acid 
steel,  and  this  is  suggested  as  one  reason  why  the  output  of  the 
Cleveland  mines  does  not  increase  more  rapidly.  Middlesbrough 
is  the  centre  of  the  iron-smelting  industry,  which  is  also  carried  on 
at  Stockton,  Hartlepool,  and  other  places,  where  coal,  ore,  and 
flux  can  all  be  easily  brought  together.  ^ 

\3hipbuilding  is  an  important  branch  of  the  iron  and  steel  industry 
of  the  region.x  The  principal  yards  are  situated  below  Newcastle 
on  the  Tyne,  which  has  been  deepened  to  permit  of  its  navigation 
by  large  vessels,  on  the  Wear  at  Sunderland,  at  Hartlepool  on 
the  coast,  and  at  Stockton  on  the  Tees.  These  districts  have 
made  rapid  progress  within  recent  years,  and  the  tonnage  of  the 
ships  built  there  now  averages  over  45  per  cent,  of  the  total  tonnage 
built  in  the  United  Kingdom.  Other  industries  of  the  region 
are  also  associated,  to  a  large  extent,  with  the  manufacture  of 
iron  and  steel.  There  are  great  engineering  works  at  Newcastle, 
Stockton,  and  Darlington ;  and  railway  stock  is  manufactured  at 
the  last  named  town.  Salt  is  obtained  from  the  Keuper  marls 
at  Middlesbrough,  and  there  are  great  chemical  works  on  the 
Tyne  which  derive  part  of  their  raw  material  from  the  Magnesian 
Limestone  in  the  vicinity. 

The  Yorkshire,  Derbyshire,  and  Nottinghamshire  Coal- 
field.— This  coalfield  occupies  a  great  basin  of  which  the  western 
part  alone  is  exposed,  the  eastern  part  lying  concealed  under  an 
accumulation  of  Permian  and  later  rocks.  The  exposed  portion 
is  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Millstone  Grit  of  the  Pennines,  and 
on  the  east  by  the  outcrop  of  the  Magnesian  Limestone.  Within 
these  limits  it  extends  from  Leeds  and  Bradford  in  the  north  to 
Nottingham  in  the  south.  The  coal  varies  in  character,  different 
seams  having  different  qualities,   but  it  includes  varieties  well 


THE   UNITED   KINGDOM  51 

adapted  for  locomotives  and  steamships,  household  purposes, 
and  the  manufacture  of  gas.  The  limits  of  the  eastern  or  concealed 
portion  of  the  field  are  only  gradually  being  determined.  On  the 
east  it  has  now  been  found  to  extend  as  far  as  a  line  running  from 
Selby,  by  Thorne  and  Haxey,  to  Owthorpe,  that  is,  nearly  as  far 
east  as  the  Trent.  In  1904  it  was  estimated  that  the  unconcealed 
and  the  proved  parts  of  the  concealed  coalfield  (the  latter  not  so 
extensively  known  then  as  now)  contained  in  all  26,000,000,000  tons, 
while  calculations  of  the  contents  of  the  unproved  parts  of  the 
concealed  area  varied  from  23,000,000,000  tons  to  35,000,000,000 
tons.  An  accurate  estimate  is  impossible,  however,  until  further 
investigations  have  been  made.  The  present  rate  of  production 
is  65,000,000  tons  per  year. 

Upon  the  visible  part  of  the  coalfield  numerous  important  indus- 
tries have  grown  up.  Partly  as  a  result  of  geographical  conditions, 
the  woollen  manufactures  of  England  are  established  mainly  in 
Yorkshire.  The  Pennine  Chain  was  a  great  sheep-raising  region 
in  early  times,  and,  as  the  manufacture  of  cotton  made  its  way  in 
Lancashire,  that  of  wool  was  pushed  over  the  mountains  into 
Yorkshire,  where  it  took  firm  hold.  With  the  development  of  steam 
power  the  industry  began  to  grow  rapidly,  and,  as  a  result  of  the 
momentum  which  it  thus  acquired,  drew  to  itself  various  branches 
of  the  woollen  industry  which  had  hitherto  been  settled  in  other 
parts  of  the  country.  It  is  mainly  concentrated  at  the  present  time 
in  the  Yorkshire  dales,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Pennines,  between 
the  Wharfe  and  the  Calder.  Considerable  specialisation  prevails. 
Wools  vary  greatly  in  length  according  to  the  breed  of  sheep  from 
which  they  are  obtained,  and  the  geographical  environment  in  which 
the  sheep  are  reared.  Short  wools  are  carded,  long  wools  are 
carded  and  combed,  or  combed  only.  Carded  wools  are  made 
into  woollen  goods  "  the  fibres  of  which,  in  the  finished  article, 
cross  and  recross  one  another  "  ;  combed  wools  are  made  into 
worsteds,  "  the  fibres  of  which  lie  parallel  to  one  another."  The 
former  include  coarse  cloths,  flannels,  blankets,  and  tweeds,  while 
the  latter  are  generally  lighter  and  of  finer  quaUty,  and  include 
the  better  kinds  of  dress  material  used  by  both  sexes.  The  Bradford 
district,  Huddersfield,  and  Halifax  are  chiefly  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  worsted  goods.  Leeds  and  Morley  make  woollens  ; 
Batley  and  Dewsbury  among  other  articles  produce  large  quantities 


52  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

of  shoddy  (re-made  woollen  goods) ;  Keighley  and  Dewsbury  are 
engaged  in  spinning ;  carpets  are  made  at  Heckmondwike  and 
Halifax ;  and  so  on.  In  addition  to  wool,  it  may  be  noted,  both 
cotton  and  silk  are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  certain  fabrics.  The 
wool  is  partly  of  domestic,  but  mainly  of  foreign  origin.  Of  the 
latfer,  Australia  and  New  Zealand  are  the  chief  sources  of  supply, 
though  some  comes  from  the  Argentine,  either  directly,  or  by 
France  or  Belgium,  in  which  two  countries  special  methods  have  been 
devised  for  dealing  with  the  very  dirty  wool  that  is  produced  by 
South  America.  Mohair  is  imported  from  Turkey  and  the  Cape, 
and  alpaca  from  South  America.  It  may  be  noted  here  in  passing 
that  Leeds  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  leather  industry  in  Britain. 

To  the  south  of  the  wool-manufacturing  region  lies  that  in  which,, 
iron  and  steel  goods  are  produced.  Sheffield  is  its  centre,  though 
the  advantages  of  that  town  are  shared  to  some  extent  by  a  number 
of  others.  The  iron  industry  settled  in  this  part  of  the  country  in 
early  times,  because  iron  ore,  and  wood  for  fuel,  were  within  easy 
reach  of  one  another.  Coal  has  taken  the  place  of  wood,  and,  though 
some  clay  ironstone  is  still  found  in  the  locaHty,  the  chief  supplies 
of  native  ore  now  come  from  Northampton,  Lincohi,  and  Leicester. 
These  ores  are  phosphoric,  and  can  be  made  into  basic  steel,  the 
Magnesian  Limestone  to  the  east  being  used  for  lining  the  converter 
or  making  the  hearth.  For  the  special  kinds  of  steel  in  which 
Sheffield  excels,  however,  haematite  pig-iron  has  to  be  imported 
from  Lancashire,  Cumberland,  and  Spain,  while,  for  the  finest 
descriptions  of  steel  goods,  Swedish  iron  is  used.  Excellent  ganister 
for  the  furnaces  is  found  in  the  Coal  Measure  sandstone,  some  of 
which  consists  of  almost  pure  quartz.  Derbyshire  limestone 
provides  the  flux,  while  the  gangue  left  by  the  lead  miners  in  the 
same  county  is  now  worked  over  for  the  fluor  spar  which  it  contains. 
This  fluor  spar  is  of  great  value  in  desulphurising  the  metal  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  basic  steel,  and  small  quantities  of  it  are  sent 
to  the  United  States  for  similar  purposes.  In  addition,  moulding 
sands  with  an  admixture  of  clay  are  found  in  the  upper  Permian 
beds,  fireclays  are  abundant,  and  excellent  grindstones  can  be 
obtained  from  the  sandstones  of  the  Coal  Measures.  With  all  these 
advantages  Sheffield  has  developed  a  great  iron  and  steel  industry, 
manufacturing  engineering  plant  and  machinery,  armour  plate 
and  ordnance,  cutlery,  tools,  and  a  great  variety  of  other  articles. 


THE  UNITED  KINGDOM  53 

The  Lancashire  Industrial  Region  Hes  mainly,  though  not 
entirely,  upon  the  Coal  Measures  which  occupy  a  considerable  part 
of  the  south  of  Lancashire,  and  a  small  area  in  the  east  of  Cheshire. 
The  country  is  generally  hilly,  but  seldom  rises  to  more  than  1 ,300 
or  1 ,400  feet  above  sea  level.  The  geographical  factors  which  have 
most  influenced  the  economic  development  of  the  region  are  the 
abundance  of  its  coal,  its  large  supplies  of  water,  its  climate,  and 
its  position.  The  coal  is  obtained  chiefly  round  the  lower  slope  of 
th^e^Tlx^arMeasures,  the  principal  mines  being  found  in  a  stretch 
of  country  enclosed  within  lines  joining  St.  Helens,  Wigan,  Bolton, 
Bury,  Manchester,  and  Leigh ;  along  a  line  drawn  from  Darwen 
by  Blackburn  to  Burnley ;  along  another  line  drawn  from  Burnley 
by  way  of  Bacup,  Rochdale,  and  Oldham  to  Manchester;  and 
in  the  east  of  Cheshire.  The  total  contents  of  the  whole  area  has 
been  estimated  at  4,530,000,000  tons,  and  there  is  an  annual  output 
of  about  24,000,000  tons.  Along  with  coal,  iron  was  formerly 
found,  but  the  suppHes  of  it  are  now  almost  entirely  exhausted. 
""Other  geographical  factors  may  best  be  discussed  in  connection  . 

with  the  development  of  the  cotton  industry,  which  is  the  basis  J^.^'^ 
of  practically  all  the  econoihic  activity  of  the  region.  In  early 
times  the  pursuits  of  the  people  in  this  part  of  England  were  mainly 
pastoral,  and  the  wool  of  the  sheep  raised  on  the  Pennines  was 
exported  to  the  Continent.  Later  on,  a  woollen  industry  grew 
up  within  the  region  itself,  and  by  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century 
a  number  of  towns  were  engaged  in  it.  As  land  became  more 
valuable  for  agricultural  purposes  in  the  south  of  England,  the 
Pennine  slope  became  the  chief  sheep-raising  district,  and  there 
the  woollen  industry  was  encouraged  not  only  by  the  abund- 
ance of  raw  wool,  but  by  the  plentiful  supply  of  water  for  wash- 
ing it.  When  cotton  goods  came  into  more  general  use,  partly,  no 
doubt,  as  a  result  of  the  discovery  of  the  Cape  route  to  India,  it 
was  not  unnatural  that  Lancashire  already  interested  in  the  manu- 
facture of  textiles,  in  which  her  workmen  had  become  expert, 
should  turn,  towards  the  end  of  the  sixteenth  century  and  in 
the  early  part  of  the  seventeenth,  to  the  spinning  and  weaving 
of  cotton.  The  raw  material  at  first  came  from  the  Levant  to 
London,  and  had  to  be  sent  to  Lancashire  at  great  expense. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  the  inventions  of  Ark- 
wright,  Hargreaves,  and  others,  which  rendered  possible  the  use 


54  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY  ^^^~~~^-^ 

of  water  power,  led  to  a  great  extension  of  the  industry.  The 
Levant  was  no  longer  able  to  supply  the  raw  material  required, 
But  the  development  of  the  cotton  fields  of  North  America  fortu- 
nately placed  the  industry  beyond  the  danger  zone.  At  the  same 
time,  Liverpool,  which  is  much  nearer  the  manufacturing  districts 
than  London,  became  the  chief  receiving  port  for  raw  cotton,  and 
this  change  undoubtedly  gave  a  greater  stability  to  the  Lancashire 
industry.  The  process  of  localisation  was  completed  by  the  intro- 
duction of  steam  power  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
During  the  whole  period  of  its  growth,  moreover,  the  cotton  industry 
has  been  aided  by  the  favourable  climatic  conditions  of  the  region. 
The  prevailing  winds  blowing  from  the  west  and  south-west  are 
heavily  charged  with  moisture,  and  on  approaching  the  Pennines 
are  forced  upwards  and  cooled.  The  relative  humidity  of  the 
atmosphere  is  therefore  high,  and  this  is  of  great  advantage  in 
cotton-spinning,  as  it  prevents  the  cotton,  and  especially  the  finer 
quahties,  from  snapping,  as  would  be  the  case  with  vegetable 
fibres,  if  the  air  were  dry.  These  climatic  conditions  probably 
contributed  also  to  the  differentiation  of  processes  which  gradually 
took  place  in  the  cotton  industry.  The  spinning  towns — Oldham, 
Bolton,  Bury,  Stalybridge,  and  others — ^Ue  in  valleys  up  which 
the  winds  from  the  ocean  may  easily  blow.  Of  the  weaving  towns, 
on  the  other  hand,  Blackburn,  Darwen,  Accrington,  Nelson,  Cohie, 
and  others.  He  sheltered  to  some  extent,  while  Preston  and  Chorley 
have  the  rainfall  of  the  Lancashire  plain,  which  is  lower  than  that 
of  the  Pennine  slopes.  Thus,  the  towns  situated  most  favourably 
for  spinning  developed  that  branch  of  the  industry,  while  others 
without  these  advantages  took  more  naturally  to  weaving.  The 
poHtical  events  of  the  eighteenth  century,  which  led  to  the  growth  of 
the  United  Kingdom  as  a  great  colonial  and  maritime  power,  hav^ 
also  had  an  important  influence  upon  the  development  of  the  cotton 
trade.  The  fact  that  British  ships  were  constantly  finding  their 
way  into  every  port  on  the  globe  facilitated  the  export  of  cotton 
goods,  and  gave  Lancashire  the  additional  advantages  of  cheapj 
transportation. 

To  estimate  correctly  the  exact  position  of  the  Lancashire 
industry  is  a  task  of  some  complexity,  which  need  not  be  attemptec 
here  ;  but  a  few  figures  will  give  some  idea  of  its  general  char^ 
acter.     On  an  average  of  the  three  years  1908-10,  Great  Britai 


THE   UNITED   KINGDOM  55 

had  40  per  cent,  of  the  cotton-spinning  spindles  of  the  world, 
and  of  these  over  nine-tenths  were  in  the  region  under  consideration. 
On  the  other  hand,  only  about  20  per  cent,  of  the  raw  cotton 
consumed  in  the  world's  mills  is  consumed  in  Great  Britain.  This 
indicates  that  the  finer  quaUties  of  cotton  goods  are  more  extensively 
manufactured  in  this  country  than  in  any  other.  In  1912  the 
average  consumption  of  cotton  per  spindle  in  Great  Britain  was 
estimated  at  35  2  lbs.,  in  Germany  at  82*4  lbs.,  and  in  the  United 
States  at  88-8  lbs. 

The  progress  of  the  Lancashire  cotton  industry  has  been  so 
great  that  there  is  a  tendency  to  overlook  the  dangers  which  lie 
ahead.  The  coalfields  from  which  the  mills  obtain  their  power  are 
not  inexhaustible,  and  even  at  the  present  rate  of  production  will 
probably  be  worked  out  within  the  next  two  centuries.  Long 
before  this  takes  place,  however,  the  greater  cost  of  obtaining  the 
coal  will  certainly  have  checked  its  output.  Humidifiers,  again, 
as  they  become  more  perfect,  may  reduce  the  value  of  the  climatic 
advantage  possessed  by  Lancashire.  The  world's  supply  of  raw 
cotton,  moreover,  is  not  keeping  pace  with  the  increased  demand 
of  the  chief  manufacturing  countries,  and  it  is  questionable  whether 
this  tendency  may  not  become  more  marked  in  the  future.  Lastly, 
the  progress  of  manufacturing  industry  in  other  parts  of  the  world 
will  ultimately  reduce  the  demand  for  goods  from  this  country. 
It  is  not  intended,  by  what  has  been  said,  to  convey  the  impression 
that  Lancashire  is  about  to  lose  its  pre-eminence,  but  it  is  necessary 
to  indicate  that  changes  in  the  relativity  of  geographical  advantage 
will  ultimately  prevent  the  present  rate  of  progress  being  maintained, 
and  may  even  bring  about  a  retrograde  movement. 

Around  the  cotton  industry  various  others  have  grown  up. 
Bleaching  and  calico-printing  are  naturally  important.  Engineer- 
ing and  the  manufacture  of  textile  machinery,  favoured  by  the 
presence  of  coal,  the  facilities  for  obtaining  iron,  and  the  large 
market  at  hand,  are  carried  on  in  many  towns  of  the  region.  Wigan, 
which  produces  some  iron  ore  and  imports  more,  is  the  centre  of 
the  iron-smelting  industry  and  coal  export  trade.  The  manufacture 
of  glass  and  chemicals  is  carried  on  at  St.  Helens,  Runcorn,  Widnes, 
and  other  towns  where  coal  can  be  obtained  from  Lancashire  and 
salt  from  Cheshire.  Warrington  has  large  soap  works.  Liverpool 
is  the  great  port  of  the  whole  region,  though  Manchester,  connected 


56  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

with  the  Mersey  by  the  Ship  Canal,  has  a  large  and  growing  1 
trade. 

The  Lake  District  is  a  dome-shaped  mass  formed  in  the  main 
of  ancient  rocks.  On  the  central  uplands  the  cultivation  of  the 
land  is  impossible,  but,  in  the  valleys  and  on  the  surrounding 
lowlands,  pastoral  farming  is  an  important  pursuit.  The  mineral 
wealth  of  the  region  is  considerable.  The  Cumberland  coalfield 
extends  along  the  coast  from  Whitehaven  to  Mary  port,  a  distance  of 
fourteen  miles,  and  then  runs  inland  in  a  north-easterly  direction 
for  another  fifteen  miles.  In  addition,  large  deposits  of  coal  He 
concealed  beneath  more  recent  formations,  and  under  the  sea 
where  indeed  they  have  been  worked  for  a  distance  of  over  four 
miles  from  the  coast.  The  total  content  of  the  field  is  estimated 
at  1,500,000,000  tons,  while  the  annual  output  is  over  2,000,000, 
a  large  part  of  it  being  shipped  to  Ireland  from  Whitehaven  and 
Maryport.  Haematite  iron  is  obtained  in  various  districts,  but 
more  especially  to  the  north-east  and  south-east  of  Whitehaven, 
round  Millom,  and  in  Eskdale  and  Weardale.  The  annual  output, 
which  is  about  one-tenth  the  output  of  iron-ore  in  Great  Britain,  is 
steadily  decreasing,  and  it  is  necessary  to  import  foreign  ore  for  the 
iron  industries  of  Barrow  and  Workington.  In  1846  Barrow  was 
a  village  with  300  inhabitants,  but  it  began  to  grow  when  the  iron 
mines  were  connected  with  the  coast,  and  it  is  now  actively  engaged 
in  shipbuilding  and  the  manufacture  of  armaments.  The  discovery 
of  salt  deposits  in  Wainey  Island  has  at  the  same  time  favoured 
the  development  of  chemical  industries. 

The  Central  Plain,  which  lies  between  the  areas  of  Palaeozoic 
rocks  and  the  oolitic  escarpment,  is  generally  a  fiat  or  gently  un- 
dulating country.  Over  the  greater  part  of  the  region  Triassic 
and  Liassic  rocks  prevail,  but  in  places  Carboniferous  strata  come 
to  the  surface.  The  lower _Trias,  or  Bunter  sandstone,  generally 
forms  light,  sandy  soils  which,  as  in  Cannock  Chase  in  Stafford- 
shire, are  poor  and  infertile,  and  suitable  only  for  sheep  runs. 
The  upper  J[rias,  or  Keuper  sandstones  and  marls,  on  the  other 
hand,  weather  down  into  a  stiff  clay  which  provides  some  of  the 
best  soils  of  the  Central  Plain.  Being  heavy  and  difficult  to  work, 
these  soils  are  generally  kept  under  grass,  and  this  is  also  true 
of  the  Lias  clays,  which  are  better  adapted  for  pastoral  than  for 
arable  pursuits,  though  jn  places,  .as  in  the  Vale  of  Evesham,  they  are 


THE   UNITED   KINGDOM  57 

well  suited  for  market  gardening^  ajnd^niitrgrowing.  Considerable 
areas  are  also  covered  witlTBoulder  Clay  Und  alluvium,  and  are 
generally  fertile.  But,  taking  the  Central  Plain  as  a  whole,  it  is 
not  surprising  to  find  that  nearly  three-fifths  of  its  area  is  in  per- 
manent pasture,  and  that  only  about  one-eighth  is  under  cereals, 
oats  being  the  principal  crop.  On  the  other  hand,  cattle- 
raising  and  dairy  farming  are  extensively  carried  on,  and  the 
best  cheese-making  districts  in  England  are  those  which  are 
situated  upon  the  Keuper  marl. 

Owing  mainly  to  the  presence  of  various  minerals  in  different 
parts  of  the  Central  Plain,  a  number  of  industrial  regions  have 
grown  up  within  it  and  require  to  be  treated  separately. 

The  Cheshire  Salt  District  centres  round  the  towns  of  North- 
wich  and  Middlewich,  the  salt  itself  lying  in  the  red  marls  of  the  upper 
Trias.  In  some  cases  it  is  mined,  and  in  others  evaporated  from 
natural  springs,  but  the  bulk  is  obtained  by  pumping  up  and 
evaporating  water  which  has  been  allowed  to  enter  the  mines  and 
dissolve  the  salt. 

The  North  Staffordshire  Coalfield  is  a  valuable  one,,  and 
the  total  content  has  been  estimated  at  4,368,000,000  tons.  The 
coals  vary  in  quality,  but  they  are  chiefly  used  for  domestic,  steam, 
and  manufacturing  purposes,  though  in  some  cases  good  coking 
and  gas  coals  are  found.  Mining  and  the  manufacture  of  pottery 
are  the  chief  occupations  of  the  region.  The  latter  industry, 
which  is  carried  on  in  and  around  the  "  Five  Towns,"  owed  its 
origin  to  the  presence  of  large  deposits  of  suitable  clay  in  the 
neighbourhood.  The  finer  clays  are  now  exhausted,  and  it  is 
necessary  to  import  kaolin  from  Devonshire  for  the  manufacture 
of  porcelain  and  china,  but  local  clays  are  still  used  for  the  coarser 
kinds  of  earthenware,  and  for  making  the  "  seggars  "  in  which  the 
finer  kinds  are  baked. 

The  Black  Country. — The  coalfields  of  this  region  extend 
from  Rugeley  in  South  Staffordshire  as  far  as  the  Clent  Hills.  The 
coals  are  of  much  the  same  character  as  in  the  previous  region, 
except  that  gas  and  coking  coals  are  generally  absent.  The  total 
available  content  of  this  coalfield  is  estimated  at  1,415,000,000  tons. 
The  annual  output  of  the  whole  of  Staffordshire  is  about  14,000,000 
tons.  The  region  is  one  of  great  industrial  activity.  The 
iron_pre  which  occurs  in  the  Coal   Measures  was  for  long  worked 


58  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

with  charcoal  from  the  Forest  of  Arden,  which  Hes  to  the  south, 
and,  when  coal  replaced  charcoal  as  the  fuel  required,  the  industry 
naturally  remained  where  it  was.  But  a  certain  amount  of 
readjustment  took  place.  Birmingham,  for  example,  which  is  not 
on  the  coalfield,  but  is  several  miles  distant  from  it,  is  now  engage 
in  the  manufacture  of  a  great  variety  of  miscellaneous  articles 
all  of  which  are  in  great  demand,  but  none  of  which  is  of  grea 
bulk  in  proportion  to  its  value.  Guns  and  ammunition,  jewelle 
and  electro-plated  goods,  clocks  and  watches,  scientific  instrumentSj 
railway  carriages  and  wagons,  glass,  chemicals,  brass  bedstea^ 
and  nails,  are  all  manufactured  and  exported.  Wolverhampton,' 
Walsall,  Dudley,  and  several  other  towns  actually  on  the  coal- 
field, have  blast  furnaces,  and  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
heavy  goods ;  but  their  distance  from  the  sea,  which  renders  diffiicult 
the  importation  of  foreign  ore,  and  the  gradual  exhaustion  of 
their  local  supplies,  have  led  to  a  great  decline  in  the  production  of 
iron.  On  the  other  hand,  important  industries  have  become 
established  in  each  of  them.  Dudley  manufactures  chains  and 
cables,  fenders  and  fire-irons.  Nails  and  chains  are  made  at  Cradley, 
Lye,  and  elsewhere.  Redditch  is  noted  for  needles,  Walsall  for 
locks,  and  West  Bromwich  for  small  arms. 

Several  other  industries  which  obtain  their  fuel  partly  from  th 
South  Staffordshire  coalfield,  and  partly  from  the  much  less  im^ 
portant  coalfields  of  Shropshire,  may  be  mentioned  here,  althoug 
strictly  speaking,    they   do    not   belong    to    the   Black    Country 
Droitwich  is  the  centre  of  a  large  glass-making  industry.     It 
not  far  from  coal,  and  receives  salt  from  the  Keuper  marls  upo 
which  it  stands,  while  the  fireclay,  which  is  found  in  the  valley 
the  Lye,  near  Stourbridge,  is  of  great  value  for  moulding  the  po 
in  which  the  glass  is  melted.     Kidderminster  is  noted  for  th 
manufacjjitaof-caxpets,  and  is  said  to  owe  its  success  to  a  popul 
belief  in  the  peculiar  properties  of  the  waters  of  the  River  Stou: 
for  fixing  dyes.     Worcester,  without  any  special  advantages,  took 
up  the  manufacture  of  china  after  the  decline  of  its  woollen  industry, 

The  Warwickshire  Coalfield  hes  in  the  north-east  part  o: 
the  county  of  Warwick,  between  the  towns  of  Nuneaton,  Coventry; 
and  Tamworth,  and  extends  under  Permian  and  Triassic  rocks 
to  the  south  and  south-east.  The  coal  is  of  the  ordinary  bituminoui 
character,    and,    besides    satisfying   local  needs,   is    exported   i 


I 

s 

I 


THE   UNITED   KINGDOM  59 

considerable  quantities  to  other  parts  of  the  country.  The  content 
of  the  field  is  estimated  at  1,126,000,000  tons,  and  the  annual 
output  is  about  4,500,000  tons.  Coventry,  a  few  miles  south  of 
this  coalfield,  has  had  a  varied  history,  but  it  is  now  chiefly  engaged 
in  the  manufacture  of  cycles  and  motor-cars. 

The  Leicester  Coalfield  li'e§  in  the  north  of  the  county  of 
that  name,  and  extends  into  south  Derbyshire.  The  coals  are 
bituminous,  and  are  used  for  manufacturing  and  domestic  purposes. 
Burton  has  a  great  brewing  industr}?-,  due  partly  to  the  fact  that 
its  water  has,  dissolved  in  it,  a  considerable  quantity  of  gypsum 
from  the  Keuper  marls.  Leicester,  which  is  some  distance  from 
the  coalfield,  is  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  boots,  shoes,  and 
hosiery. 

'^' Wales  as  a  physical  region  includes  all  the  country  to  the  west 
of  the  Central  Plain.  But  within  it  three  distinct  natural  regions 
may  be  recognised,  geological  structure  being  taken  as  the  basis 
of  division. 

The  Cambrian  and  Silurian  Area,  which  Ues  in  the  west 
and  north-west,  is  a  dissected  tableland,  the  uplands  of  which 
are  generally  grass-covered  except  in  their  highest  parts,  while 
the  lowlands  are  broad  valleys  capable  of  cultivation.  The  arable 
area  is^Tfnall,  and  stock-raising  is  more  important  than  arable 
farming.  Sheep  are  well  distributed  throughout  the  region, 
but  cattle  are  most  numerous  on  the  lowlands  of  Anglesey,  Pem- 
broke, and  Carmarthen,  which  contain  one-third  of  all  the  cattle  in 
Wales. 

Mineral  wealth  is  of  some  importance.  Slates  are  extensively 
quarried  near  Bangor,  in  the  north-west,  while  along  the  eastern 
rim  are  the  coalfields  of  Flint,  Denbigh,  and  Shropshire,  the  total 
contents  of  which  have  been  estimated  at  2,000,000,000  tons. 

The  Old  Red  Sandstone  Area  includes  the  counties  of 
Brecon,  Hereford,  and  Monmouth,  and  parts  of  Shropshire  and 
Worcester.  The  particular  formation  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone, 
on  which  the  greater  part  of  this  area  is  situated,  is  known  as 
corn-stones,  and  the  land  .is.j3l.  exceptional ,  fertility.  It  is  well 
suited  both  for  orchaxds..  and.. hop-gardens,  and  the  apples  grown 
upon  it  have  given  Hereford  a  famous  cider  industry.  Much  of 
the  regJoiLJonnS-Xich  pasture  land,  and  the  number  of  cattle  and 
sheep  is  relatively  high. 


bO  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

The  Carboniferous  Area  lies  in  the  SQuth  of  Wales,  and  covers 
part  of  the  counties  of  Pembroke  and  Carmarthen,  nearly  the 
whole  of  Glamorgan  and  Monmouth,  and  part  of  Brecon.  The 
Coal  Measures  come  to  the  surface  over  the  greater  part  of  this 
region,  while  the  productive  coalfield  has  an  area  of  about  1,000 
square  miles.  The  land,  which  has  a  plateau-like  formation, 
and  slopes  from  north  to  south,  is  cut  up  by  a  number  of  deep  trans- 
verse valleys,  including  those  of  the  Nedd,  Afon,  Rhymney,  Taff, 
and  Ebbw.  These  valleys,  by  exposing  many  of  the  coal  seams, 
faciUtated  in  the  past  the  economical  working  of  the  coal,  which 
could  be  obtained  by  driving  adits  and  galleries  from  the  outcrops 
along  the  hillsides ;  and,  as  a  result,  deep  mining  was  rare  in  this 
region  until  within  comparatively  recent  years.  At  the  same  time, 
the  eastern  part  of  the  coalfield  is  traversed  for  many  miles  by  an 
important  anticlinal  fold,  which  converts  it  into  two  troughs,  and  in 
this  way  brings  within  reach  of  the  miner  much  coal  which  would 
otherwise  have  lain  at  too  great  a  depth  to  be  worked.  The  char- 
acter of  the  coal  varies  from  bituminous  in  the  east,  to  pure 
anthracite  in  the  west,  the  steam  coal  used  in  the  Navy  and  on  all 
fast  boats  occurring  chiefly  in  the  central  part  of  the  field  between 
Llanelly  and  Neath.  The  whole  coalfield  is  estimated  to  have 
a  net  available  content  of  26,470,000,000  tons,  of  which  about  14 
per  cent,  is  classed  as  first-class  steam,  22  per  cent,  as  anthracite, 
30  per  cent,  as  bituminous,  and  33  per  cent,  as  second-class  steam. 
The  annual  output  of  the  field  is  now  about  50,000,000  tons,  of  which 
more  than  one-half,  consisting  largely  of  steam  coal,  is  sent  abroad. 
The  export  of  coal  from  South  Wales,  like  the  mining  of  it,  is  greatly 
aided  by  the  transverse  valleys,  which  open  up  easy  railway  routes 
across  the  field,  and  which  have  at  their  mouths  the  chief  exporting 
towns :  Llanelly,  Swansea,  Cardiff,  and  Newport.  Barry  Dock, 
situated  a  few  miles  west  of  Cardiff,  though  not  at  a  river  mouth, 
is  also  engaged  in  the  coal  trade. 

In  addition  to  the  mining  and  exportation  of  coal,  metallurgical 
industries  of  considerable  importance  are  established  on  the  coal- 
field. These  industries,  although  they  owe  their  origin  to  the 
proximity  of  raw  materials,  are  now  mainly  dependent  on  ores 
imported  from  abroad.  Iron  is  brought  from  Spain  for  the  iron  and 
steel  works  at  Dowlais,  Merthyr-Tydfil,  Cardiff,  Port  Talbot,  and 
Swansea.     For  the  tin-plate  industry  which  has  grown  up  in  the 


THE   UNITED   KINGDOM  61 

west  of  Glamorgan,  raw  material  was  formerly  obtained  from  Corn- 
wall, but  is  now  imported  from  the  Malay  Peninsula.  In  and 
around  Swansea,  also,  there  are  smelting  works  for  the  treatment  of 
copper,  lead,  and  zinc.  Pembroke  on  Milford  Haven  is  a  naval 
dockyard. 

The  Peninsula  of  Devon  and  Cornwall  forms  a  synclinal 
trough.  Old  Red  Sandstone  appears  in  the  upland  districts  in  the 
north  and  south,  while  Carboniferous  rocks  occupy  the  hollow 
between.  In  the  south,  also,  there  are  considerable  upland  areas  of 
granitic  formation.  Much  of  the  country  consists  of  moorland 
and  grassland;  and  cattle-raising  is  an  important  industry  in 
this  region,  which  contains  one-tenth  of  all  the  cattle  in  England. 
Arable  farming  is  in  the  main  confined  to  the  river  valleys,  and  ogj^s 
is  the  chief  cereal  grown.  The  northern  part  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone 
is,  in  the  east,  suitable  for  apple-growing,  while  the  mildness  of 
the  cHmate  along  the  south  coast  favours  the  cultivation  of  early 
flowers  and  vegetables.  In  those  districts  where  granitic  masses 
have  come  into  contact  with  the  Palaeozoic  rocks  there  are 
mineral  veins,  the  output  of  which,  however,  is  not  now  of  great 
vaixie.  Tinis  still  worked  in  Cornwall,  and  some  (popper  is  pro- 
duced, but  the  amount  of  each  is  insignificant  when  compared 
with  that  which  is  imported  from  abroad.  Kaolin  is  obtained 
from  districts  in  which  the  granitic  rocks  are  decomposing,  and  is 
sent  not  only  to  the  Potteries  but  to  the  United  States  and  other 
countries.  FJshing  for  pilchards,  mackerel,  and  fiat  fish  is  carried  on 
from  various  points  along  the  coast.  Devonport  is  a  naval  station, 
and  Plymouth  a  port  and  place  of  call  for  mail  steamers. 

The  Scarplands  and  Tertiary  Formations. — The  economic 
development  of  England  to  the  south  and  east  of  the  oolitic  escarp- 
ment is  in  striking  contrast  with  that  of  the  regions  which  have 
already  been  discussed.  The  Scarplands  and  Tertiary  formations 
cover  less  than  two-fifths  of  the  total  area  of  England  and  Wales, 
but  they  include  over  three-fifths  of  the  arable  jand.  On  the  other 
hand,  with  the  exception  of  London  and  one  or  two  ports,  there 
are  no  great  manufacturing  tovyns,  as  in  the  north.  Agriculture  is 
the  chief  occupation  of  the  inhabitants,  but  its  character  varies 
from  one  place  to  another  with  changes  in  the  geographical 
environment.  Differences  in  soil  and  climate  over  the  whole  region 
would   permit    of   its    division   into    a   considerable    number   of 


I 


62  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

sub-regions,  but  in  what  follows  only  the  more  general  characteristic! 
are  considered. 

The  Jurassic  Area. — On  the  higher  parts  of  the  oolitic  escarp- 
ment the  land  is  suitable  only  for  pastoral  purposes,  and  sheep 
are  raised  in  the  Cotswolds  and  elsewhere.  In  various  places, 
also,  iron  is  obtained  from  the  Jurassic  limestone.  Apart  from 
the  ClevelandHills,  which  have  been  included  in  the  North-East 
Industrial  Region,  the  chief  deposits  are  in  Lincoln  and  North-, 
ampton.  The  greater  part  of  the  ore  produced  by  these  two' 
counties,  which  have  an  annual  output  of  about  4,500,000  tons, 
is  sent  to  Sheffield  and  other  iron-manufacturing  areas,  but  some 
of  it  is  smelted  in  the  vicinity  of  the  mines,  at  Kettering,  Welling- 
borough, and  elsewhere.  The  industry  in  these  districts  is,  however, 
not  highly  organised,  and  the  products  of  the  furnaces,  forge 
and  foundry  iron,  are  utilised  in  the  workshops  of  Sheffield  and 
the  Black  Country. 

From  the  oolitic  escarpment  the  land  slopes  gently  down 
towards  the  foot  of  the  chalk  escarpment.  In  the  lowlands  are 
the  Oxford  and  Kimmeridge  clays,  which,  though  productive, 
are  heavy  and  difficult  to  work.  Consequently,  they  have  in 
many  places  been  converted  into  grassland  within  recent  years 
and  over  the  whole  of  the  Jurassic  belt  the  area  under  permanent 
grass  is  considerably  greater  than  that  under  crops.  Cattle  and 
sheep,  wheat,  barley,  and  roots  are  the  chief  agricultural  products 
of  the  region. 

Manufactures  are  of  secondary  importance.  The  West  of 
England  woollen  industry  is  situated  mainly,  but  not  entirely, 
upon  the  western  part  of  the  Jurassic  area,  where  the  proximity  of 
sheep-runs  and  the  abundance  of  water  favoured  its  early  growth. 
Frome,  Stroud,  and  Bradford-on-Avon  are  the  centres  of  this 
industry,  and  some  of  their  woollen  cloths  are  held  in  high  repute. 
Witney,  in  Oxfordshire,  is  famous  for  its  blankets.  Northampton- 
shire, where  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  land  is  under  grass,  has 
for  long  been  a  great  cattle-grazing  country.  The  presence  of 
oak-woods  encouraged  the  tanning  industry,  which  in  turn  led  to  the 
manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes.  This  industry  is  now  extensively 
carried  on  in  Northampton  itself,  and  in  the  towns  and  villages 
of  the  central  and  southern  districts  of  the  county.  Agricultural 
machinery  is  made  at  Lincoln  and  Grantham. 


THE   UNITED    KINGDOM  63 

The  Cretaceous  Region  must  be  divided.  The  eastgrn  section 
is  overlain  by  the  Boulder  Clay,  and  along  with  it  may  be  considered 
those  parts  of  the  London  Basin  which  are  also  covered  with  the 
deposits  of  the  glacial  ice-sheet,  and  even  the  Fens,  where  both 
Jurassic  and  Cretaceous  rocks  lie  under  a  covering  of  alluvium. 
The  fertile_soil,  the  low  rainfall,  and  the  warm  summers  of  the  whole 
of  this  area  render  it  well  suited  for  the  cultivation  of  wheat,  and  the 
East  Riding  of  York,  the  eastern  part  of  Lincoln,  and  Norfolk, 
Suffolk,  Essex,  Cambridge,  and  Hertford  contain  over  two-fifths  of 
the  total  area  under  wheat  in  Great  Britain.  In  these  counties,  also, 
the  area  under  arable  land  is  more  than  twice  that  which  is  in 
permanent  grass,  and  barley  and  roots  are  extensively  grown. 

Over  the  greater  part  of  the  Cretaceous  area  in  the  south  and 
west  of  the  country,  the  chalk  comes  to  the  surface.  As  there  is 
little  soil  on  the  uplands,  and  the  rainfall  is  quickly  absorbed,  these 
districts  are  mainly  devoted  to  sheep,  which  thrive  on  the  good, 
if  somewhat  thin,  grass  with  which  the  chalk  is  covered.  In  the 
valleys,  where  the  soil  has  accumulated,  arable  farming  is  possible. 

In  the  Weald  economic  conditions  are  more  varied.  To  the 
north  and  the  south  lie  the  chalk  downs,  but,  in  the  country  between, 
the  lower  members  of  the  Cretaceous  system  are  exposed.  Of 
these  the  most  fertile  are  the  Hythe  beds  and  the  Upper  Green- 
sand.  The  former  constitute  the  typical  soil  of  Kent,  on  which 
some  of  its  best  hop  gardens  and  fruit  orchards  are  to  be  found, 
while  the  latter,  which  is  one  of  the  best  light  soils  in  the  country, 
grows  both  hops  and  wheat. 

Over  the  whole  Cretaceous  area  there  are  few  manufactures.  The 
most  important  industries  include  s1xa.W-plaitiiig  at  Luton,  originally 
estabhshed  there  on  account  of  the  white  wheat  straw  grown  on 
the  chalk,  but  now  carried  on  with  raw  material  imported  from 
China  and  Japan  ;  chair-making  at  High  Wycombe,  where  the 
beech  woods,  also  on  the  chalk,  originally  provided  the  necessary 
timber ;  and  agricultural  machinery  at  Norwich,  in  the  arable 
area.  Norwich  also  retains  the  maiiufacture  of  silk  and  wool,  and 
makes  boots  and  shoes,.  In  the  north-east,  Goole,  Hull,  Immingham, 
and  Grimsby,  all  on  the  Humber,  carry  on  the  trade  of  Lanca- 
shire and  Yorkshire  with  the  Baltic  and  North  Sea  ports.  Grimsby 
is  also  a  great  Ji.shing  -  centre ;  and  Dover,  Folkestone,  and 
Newhaven,  in  the  south-east,  are  important  packet  stations. 


64  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

The  London  and  Hampshire  Basins  lie  in  depressions  in  the 
chalk  occupied  by  various  Tertiary  formations,  the  most  important 
of  which  are  the  London  Clay  and  the  Bagshot  Sands.  The  latter 
are  dry  and  pebbly,  and  are  chiefly  covered  with  heath ;  while 
the  former  constitutes  a  stiff  clay,  which,  although  difficult 
work,  is  of  considerable  fertility.  Much  of  it  is  now  in  grass, 
though,  whealhe  price  of  wheat  was  higher  than  at  present,  thai 
cereal  was  extensively  grown.  But  the  economic  importance  of  th 
London  Basin  li^s  in  the  great  city  of  London.  Situated  ne; 
the  head  of  the  estuary  of  the  Thames,  which  offers  an  easy  means 
of  access  into  the  country,  and  at  a  convenient  crossing  point  of 
that  river,  whence  good  routes  diverge  to  all  parts  of  the  British 
Isles,  London  also  lies  opposite  the  mouths  of  several  larg^  rivers, 
which  drain  some  of  the  most  productive  regions  of  the  Continent. 
To  these  conditions  are  due  its  rise  and  early  importance,  but 
its  later  development  is  the  result  of  that  change  in  geographical 
values  which  led  to  the  colonial  and  imperial  pre-eminence  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  It  was  then  that  London  became  not  only  a 
great  port,  but  the  international  market  and  financial  centre  for 
the  most  important  part  of  the  economic  world.  With  the  pro- 
gress of  other  nations  it  has  lost  some  of  its  earlier  advantages ; 
many  of  its  markets  have  moved  away  from  it ;  its  port  is  affected 
by  the  competition  of  rivals  both  at  home  and  abroad  ;  its  manu- 
factures are  carried  on  with  increasing  difficulty.  Nevertheless 
it  remains  the  greatest  port  of  the  Kingdom,  the  centre  of  i 
entrepot  trade,  the  point  upon  which  all  its  most  important  railwa; 
converge,  and  the  seat  of  an  extensive  and  varied  industrial  activit 
Southampton,  in  the  Hampshire  Basin,  trades  mainly  with  t 
Atlantic  ports  of  Europe,  with  Africa  and  the  East,  and  with  SoutK 
America. 

The  Severn  Estuary. — ^The  lands  on  either  side  of  the  low( 
Severn,  south  of  the  Old  Ked  Sandstone  area  of  Wales,  and  west 
the  Jurassic  escarpment,   may  be  considered  apart.     Their  ge 
logical  structure  is  varied,  but  they  contain  two  coalfields — t 
Forest  of  Dean,  and  the  Bristol  and  Somerset.     Their  position, 
also,  with  regard  to  the  south-east  of  England,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  the  New  World  on  the  other,  has  given  to  their  trade  and 
industry  certain  distinctive  features.     The  Forest  of  Dean  coal- 
field, with  an  estimated  net  contents  of  258,000,000  tons,  and 


1 


THE  UNITED  KINGDOM  ^ 

annual  output  of  less  than  1,000,000  tons,  produces  good  house 
and  gas  coal.  A  small  iron-smelting  industry,  which  formerly 
obtained  the  necessary  fuel  from  the  forests  in  the  locality,  is 
still  carried  on  upon  this  coalfield.  The  Bristol  and  Somerset 
coalfield^. i3  more  important,  and  it  is  estimated  that  it  contains 
4,000,000,000  tons.  The  output,  which  averages  2,500,000  tons, 
annually,  consists  of  house,  gas,  and  good  steam  coal.  BristQl, 
the  chief  town  of  the  legion  and  the  nearest  western  port  to  London, 
has  always  been  interested  in  the  American  trade,  and  was,  formerly, 
one  of  the  principal  ports  engaged  in  it ;  but  it  is  handicapped, 
both  by  the  unsuitabiUty  of  the  Avon  for  navigation  by  large  ships, 
and  by  the  great  rise  and  fall  of  the  river.  With  a  view  to  over- 
coming these  obstacles,  docks  have  been  constructed  at  Avonmouth. 
The  chief  imports  include  cereals  and  colonial  produce  generally 
of  a  tropical  or  sub-tropical  nature.  A  great  drawback  to  the 
growth  of  the  port  has  hitherto  been  the  want  of  a  return  cargo, 
but  recently  attempts,  not  wholly  unsuccessful,  have  been  made 
to  tap  the  Birmingham  area.  Bristol  itself  is  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  tobacco  and  cocoa.  The  surrounding  country  is 
fertile,  and  much  fruit  is  grown. 

IRELAND 

The  Northern  Region  includes  practically  the  whole  of  Ulster, 
but  it  may  be  divided  into  two  parts — an  eastern  and  a  western. 
In  the  former,  the  debris  from  the  basaltic  rocks,  which  constitute 
the  Antrim  Plateau,  furnishes  considerable  areas  with  a  ffixtik-^soilr 
and  the  plains  around  Lough  Neagh  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Bann 
are  among  the  most  productive  in  the  country.  The  Old  Red 
Sandstone,  which  occurs  in  parts  of  Tyrone,  has  also  weathered 
down  into  good  arable  land,  but  in  the  Silurian  districts  of  the 
south-east  of  Ulster  the  soil  is  generally  poorer,  and  much  of  it  is 
devoted  to  _ pastoral  pursuits.  In  the  we,st,  -  on  -the,  crystalline 
and  granitic  rocks  of  Donegal,  conditions  are  much  less  favourable 
to  agriculture,  and  the  more  mountainous  districts  are  almost 
entirely  barren. 

The  north-east  of  Ulster  is  the  most  prosperous  district  in  the 
whole  of  Ireland,  a  result  which  must  in  part  be  attributed  to  the 
strong  infusion  of  Scots  and  Enghsh  settlers  which  took  place  in 
the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries.     Over  20  per  cent,  of 


66  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 


the  total  area  is  under  cereals  and  green  crops,  while  less  than 
60  per  cent,  is  under  hay  and  grass.  In  the  western  division,  on  the 
other  hand,  only  about  12  per  cent,  of  the  land  is  under  crops. 
Ulster  produces  nearly  one-half  of  all  the  oats  grown  in  the  country, 
and  practically  all  the  flax.  For  the  cultivation  of  the  latter 
crop,  the  moist  soil  and  temperate  climate  are  peculiarly  favour- 
able. Unfortunately,  in  the  after  treatment  of  the  plant  the  Ulster 
farmer  appears  to  be  careless  and  unscientific,  and  Irish  flax  does 
not  hold  its  own  with  that  imported  from  abroad.  Dairy  farming 
and  pig-raising  are  also  important  pursuits  of  the  agricultural 
population. 

The  industrial  life  of  Ireland  is  concentrated,  to  a  great  extent, 
in  the  east  of  Ulster,  which,  although  practically  without  mineral 
wealth  of  its  own,  is  easily  able  to  obtain  coal  from  Ayrshire  and 
south  Lancashire,  and  iron  and  steel  from  Cumberland  and  other 
parts  of  Great  Britain,  for  the  shipbuilding  yards  at  Belfast.  There, 
it  is  true,  a  certain  amount  of  compensation  for  the  want  of  raw 
material  is  found  in  the  relative  cheapness  of  land  and  labour  and 
the  excellent  facilities  for  launching  vessels.  Belfast  builds  some 
of  the  largest  ships  in  the  world,  and,  according  to  tonnage,  has 
an  output  of  about  10  per  cent,  that  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
Londonderry  is  also  engaged  in  shipbuilding,  but  on  a  much  less 
extensive  scale. 

The  manufacture  of  linen  in  Ireland  was  a  natural  result  of  th 
cultivation  of  flax  in  that  country,  but  at  the  present  time  muc 
of  the  raw  material  is  imported  from  abroad,  especially  fro 
Russia.  The  facilities  for  bleaching  afforded  by  climatic  con- 
ditions and  the  nature  of  the  water  supply,  as  well  as  the  largi 
reserve  of  female  labour,  have  done  much  to  concentrate  the  indust 
in  Belfast,  though  it  is  also  carried  on  to  a  greater  or  less  exten 
in  many  of  the  surrounding  towns  and  villages.  Shirt-m; 
which  gives  employment  to  a  large  number  of  people  in  the  wes 
of  Ulster,  probably  owes  its  origin  to  the  presence  of  the  line 
industry.  The  cutting  and  finishing  processes  are  performed 
large  workshops  in  Londonderry,  but  the  actual  sewing  of  th 
shirts  is  a  domestic  industry  throughout  Londonderry,  Tyron 
and  part  of  Donegal.  Other  industries  in  Belfast  and  Londonde; 
include  rope-making,  engineering,  brewing,  and  tanning.  In  th 
west  of  Ulster,  especially  in  Donegal,  where  geographical  conditio: 


THE  UNITED  KINGDOM  67 

are  adverse  to  economic  development,  and  where  much  of 
the  land  is  under  the  control  of  the  Congested  Districts  Board, 
there  are  few  manufactures.  The  most  noteworthy  is  handloom 
weaving  in  wool,  which,  partly  as  a  result  of  the  Board's  fostering 
care,  has  attained  some  importance  in  south  Donegal. 

The  Central  Plain  covers  about  one-third  of  the  whole  of 
Ireland.  The  soil,  derived  mainly  from  the  underlying  limestone 
mixed  to  some  extent  with  the  debris  of  other  rocks,  is  often  fertile 
but  the  drainage  is  defective  and  in  places  there  are  great  bogs.^ 
The  proportion  of  land  under  crops  is  much  lower  than  in  the 
previous  region,  and  does  not  exceed  9  per  cent,  of  the  whole 
area,  while  over  60  per  cent,  is  under  hay  and  grass.  The  rainfall 
increases  from  east  to  west,  and,  as  a  result,  the  cropped  area  ' 
decreases.  Moreover,  while  the  acreage  under  cereals  exceeds  that 
under  green  crops  in  the  east,  the  reverse  is  the  case  in  the  west. 
OaJ^is  the  chief  cereal  grown,  but  in  the  south-east  barley  is  an 
important  crop,  while  in  the  west  potatoes  are  extensively 
cultivated.  On  the  grasslands  large  numbers  of  store  cattle  are 
raised.  -- 

Dubhn,  which  is  situated  where  a  break  in  the  mountain  rim 
and^^deep  bay  permit  of  easy  access  from  England  to  all  parts  of 
Ireland,  is  the  chief  industrial  town  of  the  region.  Brewing  and  ^ 
distilling,  the  manufacture  of  poplin  (a  fabric  consisting  of  a 
mixture  of  wool  and  silk,  noted  for  its  soft  texture,  dehcat^< 
colouring,  and  extreme  durabiUty),  and  biscuit-making  are  all 
carried  on. 

In  the  west  the  Central  Plain  extends  as  far  as  the  coast  at 
Galway,  but  elsewhere  it  is  cut  off  from  it  by  the  mountains  of 
Mayo,  Galway,  and  Clare.  The  whole  of  this  mountain  area  is 
very  infertile,  and  much  of  it  falls  within  the  Congested 
Districts. 

The  Southern  Region  is,  on  the  whole,  mountainous,  but 
contains  considerable  lowland  areas  along  the^fipasts  and  in  the 
valleys  of  the  larger  rivers.  The  soil  varies  greatly  from  one 
place  to  another.  On  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  of  the  soutii^i^^est  it 
is  well  adapted  to  dairying,  while  in  the  Silurian  districts  in  the 
south-east  much  of  it  produces  goodjierbage.  In  the  Golden 
Valley,  between  the  SUevefehm  and  the  Galty  Mountains,  an 
intermixture  of  the  debris  of  Hmestone  and  Old  Red  Sandstone 


68  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

produces  a  soil  of  great  fertility  ;  and  elsewhere,  also,  the  hmestone 
soils  are  generally  fertile.  With  regard  to  cultivation,  this  region 
occupies  a  position  intermediate  to  those  already  described.  Over 
10  per  cent,  of  the  area  is  under  crops,  and  the  grasslands  are 
more  extensive  than  in  any  other  part  of  Ireland.  Barley  is  grown, 
mainly  in  the  east,  and  has  given  rise  to  brewing  at  Waterford, 
Kilkenny,  Limerick,  and  elsewhere.  Dairying  is  an  important 
pursuit,  especially  in  the  three  counties  of  Limerick,  Kerry,  and 
Cork,  which  contain  about  one-fourth  of  all  the  milch  cows  in 
Ireland.  Cork  is  the  commercial  centre  of  the  industry,  and  from 
it  large  quantities  of  butter  are  sent  to  Great  Britain.  The  pro- 
portion of  pigs  is  also  high  in  the  south,  especially  around  Cork  and 
Waterford,  both  of  which  are  actively  engaged  in  curing  and 
exporting  bacon. 

With  the  exception  of  those  already  mentioned,  there  are  few 
industries  in  the  south.  Lace  is  made  in  a  number  of  convent 
schools,  and  there  is  a  certain  amount  of  handloom  weaving  in 
Kerry  and  elsewhere. 

A  little  coal  is  found  at  Castlecomer,  near  Kilkenny,  and  in 
north  Kerry  and  Clare.  The  output,  however,  is  small,  and  the 
quality  inferior. 

in  conclusion,  it  may  be  noted  that  the  economic  development 
of  Ireland  is  affected  by  a  variety  of  circumstances.     Her  com- 
parative poverty  in  mineral  wealth  has  retarded  the  growth  of, 
manufactures ;     topographic    and   climatic   conditions   limit    th< 
possibilities  of  agriculture ;  the  proximity  of  Great  Britain  preveni 
her  growth  as  a  trading  nation.     She  has  suffered  alike  by  the 
protectionist  policy  of  her  more  powerful  neighbour  in  the  eighteenth] 
century,  and  by  the  free-trade  policy  of  the  nineteenth  :   in  the 
former  period  by  the  suppression  of  her  woollen  industry,  and  ii 
the  latter  by  the  loss  of  special  privileges  for   the    sale   of   hei 
agricultural  produce. 

Foreign  Trade. — ^The  main  factors  in  British  trade  have  already 
been  indicated,  but  it  is  necessary  to  note  its  extent  and  character! 
somewhat  more  closely.  The  imports  consist  partly  of  goods 
intended  for  consumption  within  the  country  itself,  and  partly  of^ 
commodities  which  are  imported  in  order  to  be  exported  again.] 
The  relative  importance  of  each  of  these  classes  is  shown  in  the] 
following  tables  which  give  the  average  figures  for  the  years  1906-1( 


THE  UNITED   KINGDOM 


(both  inclusive)   compiled  from  the  **  Annual  Statement  of  the 
Trade  of  the  United  Kingdom."  '  Retained  for  use 


General  in  the  United 

Imports  Re-exports    Kingdom 


I. 

Food,  Drink  and  Tobacco 

million) . 
248-31 

million). 
11-99 

million). 

236-31 

II. 

Raw  materials  and  articles  mainly 

unmanufactured 

227-42 

52-50 

174-92 

III. 

Articles  wholly  or  mainly  manu- 

factured             

151-73 

25-64 

126-09 

IV. 

Miscellaneous       

2-44 

•22 

2-21 

Totals        ..         ..      629-90       9035     53953 


Further  particulars  regarding  the  more  important  items  in  each 

of  these  four  classes  with  an  indication  of  the  countries  from  which 

they  are  imported  are  given  below  (in  £  million) . 

I.  Wheat,  £39-54  :  Argentine  £8-65,  United  States  £7*72,  Russia 

£6-48,  Canada  £6-08,  British  India  £5-43. 

Wheat    Flour,    £6-49:  United    States   £4-43,    Canada   £1-00. 

Meat,  £42-07:    Beef— Argentine  £5-90,    United  States  £3-35. 

Mutton— New  Zealand  £3-72,  Argentine  £2-33, 

Australia  £1-61. 
Bacon— United  States  £6*33,  Denmark  £5-50. 

Canada  £1-87. 
Ham— United    States    £2-93, 
Butter,  £23-37 :  Denmark  £10- 11,  Russia  £3- 12,  Austraha  £2*77. 
Sugar,   £20-53:    Germany    £8-89,     Austria-Hungary     £3-48. 

Netherlands  £1-88,  France  £1-36. 
Tea,  £10-87  :  British  India  £5-95,  Ceylon  £3*60. 
Eggs,  £7-18  :  Russia  £2-72,  Denmark  £1-70. 
Cheese,  £6-96  :  Canada  £4-79,  New  Zealand  £'83. 
II.  Cotton,  £62-80  :  United  States  £4300,  Egypt  £15*70,  British 
India  £1-89. 
Wool,  £30-70:  Australia  £13-51,  New  Zealand  £7-20,  South 

Africa  £2-63,  Argentine  £1-47. 
Wood,  £25-74  :  Russia  £861,  Scandinavia  £569,  Canada  £3-73. 
Ores,  £15-15:  Iron,  Spain  £4*34,  Tin,  South  America  £1-34. 
Rubber,  £13-88:  Brazil  £849,  Straits  Settlements  £1-18. 


70  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

Oil,   £13-74  :  Palm-oil,  S.  Nigeria  £1-46,   Petroleum,   United 

States  £3'43  ;.  Motor  spirit,  Dutch  possessions  £'66. 

III.  Metals  and  manufactures  thereof  (other  than  iron  and  steel), 

£26-17:  Tin,    Straits    Settlements    £5-83 ;  Copper,    United 

States  £2-95,  Spain  £1-07,  Australia  £1'  19  ;  Lead,  Spain  £1*49. 

Silk,  £13-22:    France  £5-51,  Switzerland  £3-22,  Italy  £M8. 

Iron  and  Steel  and  manufactures  thereof,  £8-06.  Germany  £3-36. 

Cotton  Goods,  £9*95  :    Lace,  France  £1*64,  Germany  £1-34  ; 

Hosiery,  Germany  £1-20. 
Woollen  Goods,  £10-33  :  France  £5-28.  ■ 

Leather,    £9*37 :    Undressed,    British    India    £2-44 ;    UnitedJ 
States  £1-26  ;  Dressed,  United  States  £2-49. 
The  exports  of  the  United  Kingdom  consist  in  the  first  place  of 
the  produce  and  manufactures  of  the  country  itself,  and  in  the 
second  place  of  the  produce  and  manufactures  of  foreign  countries 
and  colonial  possessions  which  are  re-exported. 
The  exports,  under  the  first  head,  are  as  follows  : — 

In  £  million  (averages  for  same  five  years  as  before). 

I.   Food,  Drink  and  Tobacco 22*80 

II.   Raw  materials   and   articles   mainly   unmanufac- 
tured    51-33 

III.  Articles  wholly  or  mainly  manufactured     . .         . .  316-52 

IV.  Miscellaneous   ..         6'80 


Total  ..         ..        £397-45, 


The  following  table  indicates  some  of  the  principal  items  included 

in  the  above  figures  and  the  countries  to  which  they  are  sent.     It 

frequently  happens,  however,  owing  to  the  widespread  nature  o! 

British  trade,  that  some  article,  of  which  there  is  a  considerable 

export,  is  distributed  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  globe,  and  that 

no  one  country  receives  a  large  amount  of  it. 

I.   Fish,  £4-84  :    Herrings,  cured,  Germany  £2-06,  Russia  £1*05. 

Spirits,  £3-13:    Australia    £-60,  United  States  £-48,|  Canada 

£-37,  British  India  £-28,  New  Zealand  £'23. 

II.  Coal,    £36-24 :  France   £5-60,    Italy   £5-20,    Germany   £4-62, 

Sweden  £2-16,  Russia  £1-88,  Argentine  £1-84.    f,i 
III.  Iron  and  Steel  goods,  £40*99 :  British  India  £5-33,  Australis 
£3-90,  Argentine  £3-76,  United  States  £3*06,  Canada  £203 
Germany  £198,   Japan  £1*85, 


THE  UNITED    KINGDOM 


71 


Cotton  manufactures,  £100*91  :  Yam,  Germany  £3*76,  British 
India    £1-96;  Piece    goods,    British   India    £22-52,    China 
£8-02,  Egypt  £3-17,  Asiatic  Turkey  £3-12. 
Woollen  Manufactures,  £29*33  :  Yarn,  Germany  £3*31  ;  Wool- 
lens, Germany  £1*17,  France  £1*02,  Canada  £*91  ;  Worsteds, 
Canada  £1*20,  United  States  £*95. 
Machinery  £29*4  :  India  £4*5,  Russia  £2*3,  Argentine  £2*2. 
The  entrepot  trade  of  the  United  Kingdom  which  during  the  last 
five   years    averaged  £90,350,000  consists  in  the  main  of  a  great 
variety  of  miscellaneous  articles  which  find  their  way  to  British  ports 
for    re-distribution.      The    following    table  indicates    the    more 
important  of  these,  the  total  exports  of  each,  and  the  countries  to 
which  each  is  consigned. 

Wool  (sheep's),  £13*52  :  Germany  £3*83,  France  £3*49,  United 

States  £3*21,  Belgium  £2*39. 
Rubber,  £8*41  :  United  States  £2*52,  Germany  £2*05,  Russia 

£1*53. 
Cotton,  £8*37  :  United  States  £3*08,  Russia  £3*08. 
Tin,  £4*75  :  United  States  £3*86. 
The  following  table  indicates  the  relative  position  of  the  chief  ports 
engaged  in  the  foreign  trade  of  the  United  Kingdom  (1906-10). 

Exports  of  Exports  of 


produce  of  the 

foreign  and 

Port. 

Imports 

United  Kingdom 

Colonial  produce 

(in  £  million). 

(in  £  million). 

(in  £  million). 

London  .... 

.        207*7 

72*5 

47*0 

Liverpool    v^    . . 

153*3 

132*2 

23*4 

Hull       . .  ^       . . 

38-9 

22*7 

5*4 

Manchester  V  -- 

28-3 

14*9 

•6 

Glasgow. .         . . 

14*7 

211 

•4 

Southampton  , . . 

19*8 

14*5 

5-5 

Grimsby 

11*4 

15*5 

•1 

Harwich 

19-7 

3*9 

1-8 

Newcastle     7  . . 

9*6 

10*7 

•1 

Leith 

13*5 

6*1 

•1 

Cardiff 

5*8 

12*9 

•0 

Goole 

7*8 

10*2 

•1 

Bristol   ... 

13*9 

3*3 

•1 

Newhaven 

11*8 

3*2 

1-6 

Folkestone 

10*3 

1*4 

•8 

CHAPTER    VI 

SCANDINAVIA 

The  S^ndinavmn  ppnin<;n1a  consists  of  a.  plateau^with  a  gentle 
slope  to  the  east  and  an  abrupt  slope  to  the  west.  This  plateau 
which  has  an  average  elevation  of  about  3,000  feet,  and  to  which 
the  names  Kjolen  and  Fj  eld  have  been  applied,  is  not  continuous 
from  north  to  south,  but  is  broken  up  by  transverse  valleys  along 
which  communication  between  the  east  and  west  coasts  is  possible, 
while  isolated  summits  rise  to  a  height  of  several  thousand  feet 
above  its  general  level.  The  rocks  of  which  it  is  composed  belong 
mainly  to  the  Cambrian  and  Silurian  periods,  though  Archaean 
rocks  are  characteristic  of  the  remainder  of  the  peninsula.  Those  on 
the  west  coast  have  been  much  glaciated,  and  great  fjords  have 
been  formed,  while  on  the  east  coast  a  strip  of  land,  which  broadens 
out  in  the  south  of  Sweden,  was  covered  with  the  deposits  of  glacial 
rivers  at  a  time  when  it  lay  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
gradual  upheaval  of  the  land  which  brought  it  above  the  waters 
is  also  apparent  in  the  raised  beaches  on  the  west  coast  and  along 
the  fjords.  Only  in  the  south  of  Sweden,  in  Scania,  do  rocks  of 
Triassic  and  Cretaceous  age  appear,  and  these  are  covered  with 
deposits  of  the  glacial  period. 

Three  of  the  climatic  regions  of  Europe  are  represented  in 
Scandinavia.  In  January,  the  isotherm  of  32°  F.  runs  along  the 
southern  half  of  the  Norwegian  coast,  and  even  as  far  north  as  the 
North  Cape  the  temperature  on  the  coast  does  not  fall  more  than 
7°  or  8°  below  freezing-point.  In  Sweden,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
range  of  temperature  is  much  greater,  varying  from  32°  F.  in  the 
extreme  south  to  4°  F.  in  the  north.  In  July,  the  west  coast  lies 
between  the  isotherms  of  53°  F.  and  57°  F.,  but  in  Sweden  the 
range  is  from  about  62°  F.  in  the  south  to  about  57°  F.  in  the 
same  northern  districts  as  before.  The  rainfall  varies  from  over 
60  inches  in  south-western  Norway  to  less  than  20  inches  in 
north-eastern  Sweden. 

The  flora  of  Scandinavia  reflects  the  physical  and  climatic 
environment.  In  Scania  the  forest  vegetation  of  Central  Euroge 
^  72 


SCANDINAVIA  73 

is  found,  but  ov^r  the  remainder  of  southern  Sweden  and  south- 
eastern Norway  deciduous  and  coniferous '  trees  are  intermingled. 
Elsewhere,  except  in  the  north  and  on  the  plateau,  where  an 
Arctic  vegetation  prevails,  the  forests  are  coniferous,  Scots  pine, 
spruce,  and  birch  being  the  dominant  species.  Both  below  and 
above  the  upper  limits  of  tree  growth,  there  are  many  regions 
suitable  for  pasturage  during  the  summer  months. 

NORWAY 

The  greater  part  of  the!  Norwegian  population  is  found  in  the 
agricultural  region, jthat  isS^n  the  raised  beaches  along  the  coasj, 
on  the  delta  lands  of  the  fjords  and  lakes,  in  the  valleys  of 
the  rivers  which  penetrate  the  plateau,  and  In  the  Christiama  region 
where  the  soils,  derived  from  Cambro-Silurian  hmestone,  possess 
considerable  fertility.  These  districts  only  amount  to  about  three 
per  cent,  of  the  whole  area^  but,  lying  between  the  forest  region 
on  the  one  hand  and  the  sea  on  the  other,  the  whole  industrial 
activity  of  the  country  is  centred  upon  them.  Cereals  such  as 
barley  and  rye  can  begrown  as  far  north  as  the  70th  parallel,  but 
oatsjis  the  chiet  crop]  The  production  of  grain  is  not  sufficient 
to  meet  the  home  demand,  and  large  quantities  have  to  be  imported. 

(Dairying  is  bamming  an  impnrfanf  inr|^<^fry,y nH  there  are  1,000,000 
cattle  in  the  country.  During  the  summer  months  these  are  fed 
on  the  upland  pastures.  As  the  farms  are  small,  co-operative 
dairies  have  been  established  and  have  proved  very  successful. 

^Butter  and  condensed  milk  are  exported.  | 

The  products  of  the  Forest  region— timber,  wooden  goods  (such 
as  doors  and  window-frames),  and  wood  pulp — constitute  over 
30  per  cent,  of  the  countr/s^xports.  The  manufacture  of  wood- 
pulp  is  greatly  f acilijated  bj  the  presence  of  enormous  supplies  of 
water-power,  obtained  from  the  rivers  which  rush  down  from  the 
highlands.  The  population  of  the  Forest  zone  is  largely  migratory, 
the  various  processes  in  preparing  the  timber  for  export  being 
capied  on  chiefly  in  the  small  towns  of  the  previous  region. 

(Norwegian  fisheries  are  of  firgt-dat^t;  itTiportancej  The  greatly 
indented  coast,  with  its  long  line  of  protecting  islands  (the 
Skjaergaard),  provides  numberless  harbours  for  the  fisherman,  and 
good  spawning  grounds  for  the  fish.      TIi'p  prnvimity  nf  the  Arrtir 

leads,.ta  the  predominance  of  northern  species^,and  these  find  their 


74  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

home  on  the  ocean  banks,  more  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Lofqten_Islands,  which  are  the  centre  of  the  cod-fishinf^  ^'fldU'^^n^ 
Herring  are  obtained  all  along  the  coast  from  Bergen  northwards, 
but  Ihe  relative  productivity  of  different  districts  varies  greatly 
from  year  to  year.  The  cod,  when  salted  and  dried,  are  exported. 
to  the  Catholic  countries  of  Europe  (chiefly  to  Spain),  while  the 
herring  are  sent  to  Germany,  Sweden,  and  Russia.  Whale-fishing 
is  carried  on  from  various  ports,  the  oil  being  used  for  purposes  of 
illumination. 

Of  the  manufactures  and  industries,  other  than  those  already 
mentioned,  shipbuilding,  the  manufacture  of  paper  and  matches, 
and  the  preparation  of  calcium  carbide,  are  the  most  important. 
Within  the  last  few  years  the  production  of  calcium  carbide  for 
the  manufacture  of  nitrogenous  manures  has  become  an  established 
industry  of  Norway,  which  is  specially  favoured  by  its  large  supplies 
oi.  water-power.  Large  works  have  been  built  at  Notodden  and 
Rjukanfos  in  North  Telemarken,  and  considerable  quantities  of 
the  product  are  now  exported. 

The  mineral  resources  of  the  country  include  extensive  suppUes  of 
low-grade  iron  ore  in  the  northern  districts,  which  it  has  not  hitherto 
paid  to~wo!lroh  a  large  "scale  because  of  the  want  of  fuel.  The 
development  of  electrical  methods  of  treating  the  ore  is  causing 
more  attention  to  be  paid  to  these  deposits,  as  the  districts  in 
which  they  are  found  are  rich  in  their  possession_of  water- 
power.  Among  other  minerals,  copper  is  worked  at  Roros  in  the 
valley  of  the  Glommen,  and  silver  at  Kongsberg. 

The  geographical  position  of  Norway,  its  numerous  good  harbours, 
the  facilities  for  building  wooden  ships,  the  ease  by  water  and  the 
difficulty  by  land  with  which  communication  is  carried  on,  the 
exportation  of  timber  and  fish,  and  the  importation  of  coal,  cereals, 
and  manufactured  ^oods,  have  all  contributed  to  the  .growth  of 
Norwegian  shipping,  which  has  about  5  per  cent,  of  the  world's 
tonnage,  and  ranks  in  importance  after  Great  Britain,  the  United 
States,'  and  Germany.  jChristiania,  Bergen,  and  Trondhjem  are 
the  chief  ports.N  v 

^  SWEDEN 

In  Sweden,  as  in  Norway,  agriculture  is  the  most  important 


pursuit  of  the  people,  probably  rathermere  than  half  of  the  working 


SCANDINAVIA  75 

population  being  engaged  in  it.  The  districts  in  which  it  is  carried 
on  are  all  situated  within  the  region  which  has  been  covered  ]?y 
d^brisjeft^by  the  retreating  ice-sheet  or  washed  down  by  glacial 
streams.  In  the  north  of  this  region,  where  climatic  conditions 
are  unfavourable,  less  than  10  per  cent,  of  the  land  js_cultivated, 
but  south  of  the  60th  parallel  the  percentage  of  cultivated  land 
increases  in  many  places  to  between  20  and  50  per  cent.,  while  in 
the  south  of  Scania  it  is  over  80  per  cent.  Of  the  whole  country 
about  on'e-twelfth  is  under  crops,  oats,  rye,  barley,  and  fodder 
plants  being  the  most  important.  The  production  of  cereals  does 
not  meet  the  home  demand  and  importation  is  necessary. 

The  large  natural  meadows,  covering  over  3  per  cent,  of  the 
total  area  of  the  country,  and  the  extensive  forest  pastures  have 
encouraged  the  development  of  dairy  farming.  There  are  over 
2,500,000  cattle  in  the  country  and  large  quantities  of  butter  are 
exported,  chiefly  to  Great  Britain. 

The  forests  which  occur  in  all  parts  of  Sweden,  except  on  the 
plateau,  cover  half  its  area,  and  provide  45  per  cent,  of  its  exports ; 
but  timber  and  wood-pulp  are  chiefly  obtained  from  what 
is  known  as  the  Forest  region,__that  Js^.  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Scandinavian  plateau  between  the  primary  rocks  of  the  plateau 
proper  and  the  glacial  periphery.  Here,  cUmate  and  soil  render  the 
land  unsuitable  for  agriculture,  the  snows  of  winter  facilitate  the 
removal  of  the  timber  from  the  forests,  and  the  spring  freshets 
float  it  down  to  the  coast,  along  which  stands  a  line  of  small  towns, 
all  engaged  in  the  preparation  and  export  of  forest  produce.  As 
in  Norway,  water::power  is  extensively  used  to_drive  machinery 
in_saw  mills  and  pulp  factories.  Great  Brifai"  ^"^^  ^wpH^n'^  f^hjpf 
customer  both  for  timber  and  pulp,  but  other  European  countries 
take  a  large  share.  " 

The  most  important  factor  in  th^  mineral  Aypalth  nf  .Sw^^J^"  is 
iron  ore,  which  occurs  in  the  central  parts  of  the  cmmtry  and  in 
the  Norrland.  In  the  first  of  these  regions,  the  chief  producing 
districts  are  within  an  area  which  stretches  from  the  southernmost 
parts  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  to  a  point  north  of  Lake  Venern  in 
the  west.  In  this* area  are  the  Dannemora,  the  Grangesberg,  and 
ithe  Norber^  ore  fields,  the  first  being  famous  for  the  purity  of  its 
irpn.  ^^The  most  important  fields  in  the  Norrland  are  those  of 
Gellivara  and  Kin;navara,  both  of  which  Ue  within  the  Arctic 


76  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

circle.  These  mines,  which  have  only  been  opened  up  within  recent 
years,  now  produce  between  55  and  60  per  cent,  of  the  Swedish 
output.  They  are  connected  by  rail  with  Lulea  near  the  head  of 
the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  and  with  the  Norwegian  ice-free  port  of  Narvik, 
which  ships  more  than  half  of  the  total  output.  The  production 
of  iron  ore  in  Sweden  in  1909-10-11  averaged  4,250,000  metric  tons, 
or  3*7  per  cent,  of  the  world's  production.  The  greater  part  of  it 
is  exported  to  Germany — chiefly  to  the  Rhine  manufacturing 
district — but  a  considerable  amount  is  also  sent  to  England  and 
some  goes  to  the  United  States. 

The  manufacture  of  iron  has  long  been  carried  on  in  the  southern 
regioiL,^ere  the  population  is  large,  the  ore  good,  and  wood  for 
fuel  and  the  manufacture  of  charcoal,  abundant.  The  product  is 
of  excellent  quality,  but,  with  the  use  of  coal  for  smelting  iron, 
Sweden  has  had  to  take  a  relatively  lower  position  among  thelron- 
producing  countries,  though  it  is  possible  that  the  development 
of  electrical  processes  may  enable  her  to  regain  something  of  her 
former  importance. 

Among  other  manufactures  not  already  mentioned  are  woollen 
goQdsL__at>iiorrko£ing,  where  waler=pQ^er  is  obtained  from  the 
River  Motala;  cotton  goods  at  Gothenburg  and  Norrkoping ;  matches 
at  Tonkoping.  where  there  is  also  water-power ;  paper  in  the  vicinity 
of  Lake  Venern ;  and  explosives_jiear  Stockholm.  The  chief  im- 
ports include  coal  from  the  United  Kingdom — large  quantities  are 
imported  from  Scotland — iron  and  machinery  from  the  United 
Kingdom  and  Germany,  textiles  from  the  same  countries,  wheat 
from  various  sources,  and  coffee  from  Brazil.  In  the  five  years 
1906-10  the  value  of  the  imports  averaged  £35,000,000,  and  that  of 
the  exports  £28,000,000. 

f  The  development  of  railways  in  Scandinavia  has  naturally  been 
impeded  by  the  topography  of  the  country^  Stockholm  and 
Christiania  are  connected,  and  there  are  also  lines  from  the  former 
city  to  Gothenburg  and  Malmo,  two  of  the  chief  portsof  Sweden. 
Another  line  runs  north  from  Stockholm  to  Lulea,  with  a  branch 
to  Trondhjem,  which  is  also  connected  with  Christiania  by  a  railway 
that  follows  the  valley  of  the  Glommen.  From  Lulea  there 
is  communication  with  Narvik  in  Norway. 


I 


CHAPTER  VII 

FRANCE 

The  economic  development  of  France  has  at  all  times  been  greatly 
influenced  by  the  fact  that  it  lies  between  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Mediterranean,  with  easy  access  to  both,  and  with  good  routes 
connecting  the  one  with  the  other.  The  physical  features  of  the 
country  are  comparatively  simple.  The  Central  Massif,  around 
which  the  remainder  of  France  has  grown  up,  consists  of  a  plateau 
of  Archaean  rock,  overlain  in  places  by  Carboniferous  deposits 
and  volcanic  outpourings  ;  it  rises  gently  towards  the  south  and 
east  where  the  Cevennes  form  a  steep  escarpment.  There  are, 
besides,  the  three  peripheral  masses  of  Brittany,  known  as  the 
Armorican,  the  Ardennes,  and  the  Vosges,  all  of  which  consist  in 
the  main  of  primary  rocks.  The  Alps  in  the  east  and  the  Pyrenees 
in  the  south  are  mountains  folded  during  leftiary  times.  Lastly, 
the  lowland  regions  of  Aquitaine,  the  basin  of  Paris,  and  thejlhoflfi^ 
depression  are  axeas_o^_sediine^ation  filled  up  in  part  by  tocks  of 
Secondary  ageTand  in  part  by  d6bris  from  the  surrounding  uplands 
brought  down  during  the  Tertiary  period. 

The  physical  character  of  these  different  parts  of  France,  and 
their  relative  position  to  one  another  and  to  the  Atlantic  and  the 
Mediterranean,  give  to  the  country  a  somewhat  varied  climate, 
each  region  having  its  own  peculiarities.  In  the  Central  Massif, 
which  rises  from  a  height  of  1,500  to  2,000  feet  in  the  north-west  to 
over  5,500  feet  in  Mont  Lozere  in  the  Cevennes,  the  winter  is  long  and 
cold  with  northerly  winds,  while  the  average  temperature  in  summer 
does  not  exceed  65°  F.  The  rainfall  is  heavy,  and  in  the  more 
exposed  districts  the  mean  annual  precipitation  is  over  60  inches. 
The  Armorican  region  has,  as  a  result  of  its  proximity  to  the  ocean, 
a  temperate  climate,  and  its  summers  are  cool,  while  its  winters  are 
mild.  Therainfall,  which  is  greatest  in  autumn  and  winter,  is 
not  so  heavy^s  onthe  Central  Massif,  but  the  atmospheregenera! 
contains  a  considerable  amouttt  oi  moisture.  In  the  Gironde  these 
conditions  are  modified  by  a  more  southerly  position,  and  at 
Bordeaux  the  July  mean  is  nearly  70°F.     In  the  sub-Pyrenean 


78  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

region  there  is  a  heavy  rainfall  and  a  temperature  gradually 
decreasing  with  altitude. 

The  climate  of  the  Mediterranean  coast  is  very  different  from 
that  of  other  parts  of  France.  As  a  result  of  its  southerly  position 
and  exposure,  and  the  proximity  of  the  sea  from  which  the  winds 
then  blow,  the  winters  are  warm  ;  on  the  other  hand  the  summers 
are  hot,  as  the  prevaihng  winds  blow  from  the  land  during  that  part 
of  the  year.  At  Nice  the  range  of  temperature  is  from  46°  F.  in 
January  to  75°  F.  in  July.  The  summers  are  dry  and  the  rain 
falls  during  the  autumn  and  winter  months.  In  the  Rhone  valley 
the  temperature  is  much  reduced  by  the  cold  wind,  known  as  the 
mistral,  caused  by  the  dense  air  which  lies  over  the  Central  Massif 
slipping  down  into  the  warm  lowlands  of  the  Rhone  and  the 
Mediterranean.  The  rainfall  is  heavier  than  along  the  coast,  and 
amounts  to  between  30  and  40  inches.  The  Jura  and  the  French 
Alps  have,  like  the  Central  Massif,  a  greater  precipitation  than  the 
Rhone  valley,  and,  of  course,  a  lower  temperature. 

Eastern  France,  from  the  Ardennes  to  the  Vosges,  lies  furthest 
from  the  influence  of  the  sea,  and  the  range  between  summer  and 
winter  temperature  is  considerable.  Owing  to  the  presence  of  the 
mountains  the  rainfall  is  high,  being  between  35  and  40  inches.  In 
the  Paris  basin  the  cUmate  is  somewhat  more  extreme  than  in 
Brittany.  January  isotherms  range  from  35°  F.  in  the  east  to  39°  F. 
in  the  west,  and  July  isotherms  from  64°  F.  in  the  north  to  nearly 
70°  F.  in  the  south.  The  low  rainfall,  less  than  30  inches  over 
nearly  the  whole  region,  is  partly  due  to  the  absence  of  mountains. 

As  each  of  the  various  upland  and  lowland  regions  of  France 
has  its  distinctive  physical  and  climatic  characteristics,  they  form 
the  best  basis  for  the  division  of  the  country  into  natural  regions. 

The  Central  Massif. — ^The  sterihty  of  the  soil  derived  from  the 
Archaean  rocks  of  which  the  Massif  is  mainly  composed,  along  with 
the  rigour  of  the  climate,  renders  this  region  unsuitable  for  agricul- 
ture, and  arable  farming  is  more  restricted  than  in  any  other  part 
of  France,  except  the  Alpine  zone.  Wheat  and  oats  are  grown  in 
some  favoured  localities,  such  as  the  valley  of  the  Allier,  but  the 
characteristic  crop  is  rye,  and  nearly  one-half  of  the  rye  fields  of 
France  are  found  on  the  Central  Massif.  Pastoral  farming  is  also 
extensively  carried  on  in  the  same  region,  which  contains  one-fifth  of 
the  cattle  and  sheep  of  the  whole  country. 


I 


80  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

The  development  of  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  Central  Massif 
has  given  it  a  much  greater  importance  than  hitherto  in  the 
economic  life  of  France.  Around  it  and  within  it  lie  a  number  of 
coal  basins  which  produce  over  one-fourth  of  the  total  output  of  the  I 
country,  the  most  important  fields  being  situated  round  St.  Etienne 
in  the  basin  of  the  Loire,  at  Creusot,  Blanzy,  and  fipinac,  around 
Morvan,  at  Commentry  in  the  basin  of  the  Allier,  and  at  Alais  in  theJ 
south-east.  The  coal  from  these  fields  is  utilised  mainly  in  the  neigh- 
bouring parts  of  the  country.  Much  of  it  is  produced  at  considerable 
cost,  and  the  rates  for  transport  are  high.  It  is  cheaper  at  Marseilles 
to  buy  sea-borne  coal  from  England  than  land-borne  coal  from  St. 
Etienne. 

Iron  ore  is  also  found  in  this  region,  especially  aroimd  Morvan 
and  in  Aveyron,  but  it  frequently  occurs  apart  from  coal,  and 
the  production  is  less  than  one-fiftieth  that  of  the  whole  country. 
Nevertheless,  its  existence  has  facilitated  upon  the  coalfields  the 
development  of  an  important  metallurgical  industry,  much  of  the 
ore  for  which  has  now  to  be  brought  from  a  distance.  Creusot, 
St.  Etienne,  and  other  towns  are  all  engaged  in  the  production  of 
iron  and  steel,  and  the  best  French  steel  comes  from  the  region 
under  consideration.  ^QreusoJPis  the  centre  of  large  ordnance 
manufactures. 

Textile  indysiriesare  situated  in  a  few  more  or  less  scattered 
localities.  (St.  Etienne^  manufactures  silk  goods,  mainly  ribbons ; 
and  Roanne,  in  the^basia-^^f^the  Allier,  manufactures  cotton  and 
woollen  goods.  CCommentry  and  MontlxT^^are  among  other  towns 
carrying  on  a  small  textile  industry.  (J^teooges/  is  noted  for  the 
manufacture  of  china,  Clermont-Ferrand  for  pneumatic  tyres,  Thiers 
for  cutlery,  and  Vichy  for  mineral  waters. 

The  Armorican  Massif  is  in  its  general  character  a  region 
of  primary  rocks,  its  most  striking  feature  being  its  tendency  to 
rise  towards  the  ocean  as  the  two  ranges  of  Archaean  and  pre- 
Cambrian  age,  which  run  through  the  country  from  the  east 
towards  the  west,  converge  upon  one  another.  These  ranges 
separate  three  lowland  districts,  one  of  which  Hes  along  the  north 
coast,  one  in  the  centre,  and  one  along  the  south  coast.  The 
uplands  are  generally  infertile  and  unproductive,  while  in  the 
lowlands  good  and  bad  lands  alternate.  The  coastal  plains  are 
carefully  cultivated,  and,  in  the  northern  one,  much  attention  is 


FRANCE  81 

paid  to  market-gardening.  The  basin  of  Rennes  and  some  districts 
around  the  Lower  Loire  are  devoted  to  arable  farming,  and  con- 
siderable quantities  of  wheat  are  grown.  In  the  north,  in  the 
"  bocage  normand"  of  north-west  Normandy,  and  in  the  south,  in 
the  **  bocage  vendeen  "  of  north-west  Poitou,  softer  schists  provide 
good  grazing  grounds  intermingled  with  woodlands.  The  humidity 
of  these  districts  makes  them  especially  suitable  for  cattle,  and  it  is 
instructive  to  note  that  the  Armorican  region  has  one-fifth  of  the 
cattle,  but  only  one -twenty-fifth  of  the  sheep,  of  the  whole  of 
France. 

The  conditions  favourable  to  the  growth  of  towns  and  industrial 
development  are  generally  wanting,  and  there  are  few  manu- 
factures. T.ava1  and  Nanf^c;  gre  engaged  in  textile  pursuits,  and 
Nantes  in  the  tanning  of  leather.  On  the  other  hand,  the  sea, 
which  has  always  been  an  attractive  force,  has  drawn  many  people 
to  fishing  and  seafaring,  and  Breton  fishermen  still  go  to  the  Banks 
of  Newfoundland.  Some  of  the  principal  naval  stations  of  France, 
Cherbourg,  Brest,  and  Lorient,  are  situated  on  the  coast ;  but, 
owing  to  their  remoteness  from  the  industrial  parts  of  the  country, 
the  ports  of  the  Armorican  region  do  but  a  small  trade,  with  the 
exception  of  Nantes  and  St.  Nazaire,  which  owe  their  importance 
to  being  at  the  outlet  of  the  basin  of  the  Loire.  Cherhourg  is  now  a 
port  of  call  for  many  foreign  liners. 

(^^QUiTAiNEjl^ the  lowland  region  surrounded  by  the  Central 
Mlsstt,  the  Armorican  Massif,  and  the  Pyrenees.  It  is  composed 
partly  of  Secondary  and  partly  of  later  formations,  but  the  character 
of  the  soil  is  very  variable.  In  the  sub-Pyrenean  districts,  covered 
to  a  large  extent  with  glacial  debris,  in  the  Landes  where  Quater- 
nary sands  stretch  over  wide  areas,  and  on  some  of  the  limestone 
rocks  of  the  north  and  east,  it  is  infertile ;  in  other  places,  and  more 
especially  in  the  Tertiary  lands  of  the  valley  of  the  Garonne,  it  is 
well  adapted  to  cultivation.  Agricultural  pursuits  predominate, 
wheat  is  the  chief  cereal  grown,  while  the  French  maize  crop  is 
almost  exclusively  obtained  here,  as  temperature  and  humidity  are 
alike  favourable  to  it.  Cattle  are  reared  on  the  richer  pasture 
lands,  and  sheep  are  fed  on  the  Landes,  in  the  sub-Pyrenean 
districts,  and  elsewhere. 

Nearly  one-third  of  the  French  vineyards  are  situated  in  this 
region,  the  most  important  being  in  the  country  round  Bordeaux, 


82  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

from  which  come  such  well-known  wines  as  M6doc,  St.  Julien,  and 
Sauteme.  Further  north,  in  the  basin  of  the  Charente,  axe  grown 
the  vines  from  which  brandy  is  made,  and  Cognac,  situated  on  that 
river,  is  the  centre  of  the  brandy-distilling  industry.  Plums  and 
walnuts  are  also  important  products  of  Aquitaine. 

The  industries  of  Aquitaine  are  chiefly  concerned  with  the  prepa- 
ration for  the  markets  of  its  various  agricultural  products,  and  it  is 
only  at  the  ports,  where  coal  can  easily  be  obtained  from  Great 
Britain,  and  raw  material  from  other  parts  of  the  world,  that  manu- 
factures assume  a  more  varied  character.  At  Bordeaux  there  are 
chemical  works  and  sugar  and  petroleum  refineries ;  at  Pauillac,  the 
outport  of  Bordeaux,  and  at  Bayonne,  iron-works.  In  order  to 
prevent  damage  being  done  by  moving  sand  dunes,  the  Landes 
have  in  many  places  been  planted  with  forests  of  pine,  and  these 
have  given  rise  to  various  pursuits,  such  as  the  preparation  of 
pit-props  and  the  extraction  of  resinous  products. 

The   MED^q:ERRAMZAN'4^E^K)^I_AND   THE  ^J10iiEL.,VALLEY. — ^The 

Mediterranean  region  differs  in  several  respects  from  the  rest  of 
France.  Along  the  coast  much  of  the  soil  is  infertile,  but  further 
inland  it  improves  and  is  capable  of  producing  valuable  crops. 
The  climate,  hot  and  dry  in  summer,  mild  and  moist  in  winter, 
gives  the  region  its  characteristic  vegetation,  the  vine,  the  olive, 
and  the  mulberry  being  its  typical  products.  Of  the  area  under 
vines  in  France  over  one-third  is  included  within  the  Mediterranean 
region,  which  also  contains  practically  all  the  olive-yards  and  over 
one-half  of  the  mulberry  trees  of  the  country.  Arable  farming  is 
not  of  much  account,  but  sheep  are  reared  on  the  upper  slopes 
of  the  hills  and  on  some  parts  of  the  lowlands. 

With  the  Mediterranean  region  may  be  also  considered  the 
Rhone  valley,  where  the  soil  is  generally  more  favourable  even  if  the 
climate  is  less  beneficent.  The  olive  does  not  make  its  way  north 
beyond  the  region  of  Mediterranean  rainfall,  but  the  vine  and  the 
mulberry  flourish,  nearly  one-half  of  the  mulberry  trees  and 
one-ninth  of  the  vineyards  of  France  being  found  in  this  part  of  the 
country. 

French  viticulture  is  but  slowly  recovering  from  the  severe 
blow  dealt  it  by  the  ravages  of  the  phylloxera,  which,  like  so  many 
previous  invaders  of  France,  entered  by  the  Rhone  valley.  The 
practice  of  grafting  French  vines  on  American  stumps  has,  in  the 


FRANCE  83 

case  of  the  Rhone  and  Mediterranean  regions,  at  least,  proved  an 
effectual  means  of  restoring  prosperity  to  the  industry. 

The  olive  grows  well  in  many  parts  of  the  Mediterranean  coast 
where  the  soil  is  too  dry  or  stony  for  other  crops.  Elsewhere, 
however,  it  is  not  in  exclusive  possession  of  the  land  it  occupies, 
but  is  cultivated  along  with  cereals  or  vegetables. 

The  industrial  development  of  the  Mediterranean  coast  and  the 
Rhone  valley  is  based  partly  on  the  cultivation  of  the  above- 
mentioned  plants,  partly  on  the  position  of  the  Rhone  valley  in 
relation  to  Africa  and  the  East,  and  partly  on  proximity  to  the 
coal  resources  of  the  Central  Massif.  The  manufacture  of  silk 
settled  naturally  in  a  region  favourable  to  the  growth  of  the  mul- 
berry tree,  but  the  domestic  supply  of  raw  material  is  now  far 
short  of  the  demand,  and  large  quantities  are  annually  imported 
from   Italy,  China,  and  Japan,  with  all  of  which  there  is  easy 

communication,      gpinnipg     ic;     y^jH^^lywjktnbntpH^     })^f     wpavinp^ 

is  r.pntrpfi  at  Lyons.  Within  recent  years  considerable  changes 
have  taken  place  both  in  the  nature  of  the  product  and  the 
methods  by  which  it  is  manufactured.  Rich  and  valuable  figured 
silks  have  given  place  to  lighter  and  cheaper  goods,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  muslins  is  now  the  staple  product  of  the  town.  The 
hand-loom  weaver  has  left  the  urban  districts  and  settled  in  the 
country,  while  the  development  of  electrical  energy  has  rendered 
possible  the  use  of  mechanical  power  even  in  the  domestic  work- 
shops. One  of  the  great  inconveniences  of  the  silk  industry  is  its 
entire  dependence  upon  the  fashion  of  the  hour,  and  the  adaptability 
of  the  Lyons  weavers  has  been  a  potent  factor  in  their  success. 

The  cultivation  of  oHves  has  played  an  important  part  in  the 
trade  and  industry  of  Marseilles.  The  manufacture  of  olive 
oil  encouraged  the  growth  of  pursuits  of  a  similar  character,  and 
the  faciUties  with  which  such  articles  as  linseed,  gingelly,  sesamum, 
ground  nuts,  and  copra  could  be  imported  from  the  East  con- 
tributed to  the  establishment  of  oil,  candle,  and  soap  factories  on 
an  extensive  scale. 

The  presence  of  coal  in  the  Central  Massif  and  the  demand  for 
silk- weaving  machinery  have  favoured  the  development  of  a  large 
eng^ineering  industry  at  T.ynn<;  which  is  also  noted  for  the  con- 
^structionof  automobiles,  a  result  partly  of  the  fact  that  early 
experiments  "TiT  Lliis  ii*ode  of  locomotion  were  made  there.     The 


84  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

position  of  Marseilles  as  a  great  port,  and  its  facilities  for  the 
importation  of  coal  and  iron,  have  naturally  made  it  a  centre  of 
smelting  works,  engineering  establishments,  and  shipbuilding  yards. 
Toulon,  further  east,  is  an  important  naval  dockyard. 

[E  Alpine  Zone  plays  but  a  relatively  small  part  in  the 
economic  life  oTTrance.  The  soil  is  generally  poor  and  difficult 
to  cultivate  outside  of  the  valleys,  where  it  is  rich,  and  with  increas- 
ing altitude  the  climate  becomes  unfit  for  the  growth  of  cereals. 
Much  of  the  region  consists  of  poor  pasturage  on  which  cattle, 
sheep,  and  goats  are  fed,  while  in  the  sheltered  valleys  the  vine  is 
grown.  Anthracite  and  iron  occur  in  places,  and  there  are  numerous 
hot  springs.  The  manufactures  are  chiefly  such  as  can  be  carried 
on  in  the  homes  of  the  people,  and  include  glove-making  in  the 
country  around  Grenoble,  wood-turning,  and  employments  of  a 
similar  nature. 

The  Eastern  Border  consists  of  the  ancient  massifs  of  the 
iVrdennes  and  the  Vosges,  and  the  connecting  stretch  of  Jurassic 
uplands  in  the  basins  of  the  Meuse  and  Moselle  may  also  be  included 
within  it.  This  region  is  the  chief  producer  of  iron  ore  in  France, 
more  than  seven-eighths  of  the  entire  French  output  coming 
from  the  single  department  of  Meurthe-et -Moselle,  the  districts 
round  Nancy,  Longwy,  and  Pont-^-Mousson  being  the  most 
important.  The  proximity  of  the  German  coalfield  of  the  Saar, 
and  the  easy  communication  by  water  with  the  coalfields  of  the 
north  of  France,  have  favoured  the  growth  of  a  great  metallurgical 
industry  in  this  region,  which  now  produces  over  two-thirds  of 
the  pig-iron  and  over  one-third  of  the  steel  manufactured  in  the 
country.  Nancy  and  the  towns  around  it  are  chiefly  engaged  in 
the  production  of  pig-iron,  while  Longwy  manufactures  a  large 
amount  of  steel. 

In  the  southern  part  of  this  region,  in  the  Vosges,  there  is  situated 
one  of  the  three  chief  cotton  manufacturing  districts  of  the  country. 
This  industry  grew  up  in  Alsace  as  a  result  of  the  plentiful  supplies 
of  water-power,  but  much  of  it  was  lost  to  France  after  the  war  of 
1870.  On  the  French  side  of  the  border  the  principal  centres  are 
Belfort,  fipinal,  Saint-Die,  Remiremont,  and  Senones.  The  speciali- 
ties of  this  region,  which  contains  33  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  of 
French  spindles,  are  calico  and  thread. 

THK_B^siiiOF  Paris  is  the  name  given  to  that  great  area  of 


FRANCE  85 

sedimentary  deposits  which  lies  between  the  Central  Massif,  the 
Ardennes,  and  the  Armorican  region.  The  outer  rim  of  the  basin 
consists  of  rocks  of  Jurassic  age ;  within  that  there  is  a  belt,  not  fully 
developed  in  places,  of  Cretaceous  rocks,  while  the  centre  of  the 
basin  is  covered  over  with  deposits  of  Tertiary  times.  Although 
the  soil  of  this  region  is  generally  fertile,  its  character  varies  con- 
siderably from  one  place-io  another^ — In  the  Tertiary  lands  the 
greater  part  of  it  is  suitable  for  cultivation,  but  on  the  Cretaceous 
area  it  is  less  certain.  Champagne,  for  example,  consists  in  part 
of  a  great  plain  where  the  chalk  comes  to  the  surface  and  is 
suitable  only  for  grazing  purposes,  and  in  part  of  a  region  of  wet 
clays  naturally  opposed  to  cultivation.  In  the  Jurassic  lands  the 
valleys  are  generally  fertile,  while  the  limestone  uplands  are  more 
suitable  for  pastoral  pursuits. 

Taking  the  Basin  of  Paris  as  a  whole,  however,  it  is  the  most 
important  agricultural  region  of  France.  It  produces  nearly 
one-half  of  the  wheat  and  three-fifths  ofthe_oats_grgwn  in  the 
country,  and  it  also  contains  the  Ibestgrasslands.  In  many 
places,  and  more  especially  in  the  vicinity  of  the  great  towns, 
market-gardening  is  an  important  pursuit;  and  in  the  north-east 
there  is  grown  practically  the  whole  of  the  French  beet-rootcro£^ 
Cattle  are  raised  mainly  in  the  moister  regions  oTthe  west  andnorth- 
west,  and  sheep  in  the  drier  districts  of  the  east.  There  are  two 
separate  and  important  wine-growing  areas — ^that  of  the  Middle 
vLoipe*,  which  produces  light  wines,  and  that  of  the  eastern  part  of 
the\Seine  ba^,  more  especially  on  the  chalk  and  limestone  slopes  in 
the  valleys  of  the  Aisne  and  the  Marne,  where  are  grown  the/Vine^ 
from  which  champagne  is  made.  — '^ 

Industrially,  this  region  is  also  the  most  noteworthy  in  France. 
It  contains  part  of  the  great  coalfield  which  extends  from  Western 
Germany  through  Belgium  into  the  departments  of  the  Nord  and 
the  Pas-de-Calais.  Unfortunately,  in  the  French  portion  of  the 
field  the  coals  lie  at  a  greater  depth  than  in  Belgium,  and  are 
worked  at  greater  cost.  The  centre  of  production  is  at  Anzin, 
and  the  total  output  is  nearly  three-fourths  that  of  the  whole 
country.  In  191 1  it  amounted  to  28,000,000  tons  out  of  38,000,000 
tons. 

An  important  iron  industry  is  situated  upon  this  coalfield.  A 
certain  amount  of  pig-iron  is  made  on  the  spot,  but  large  quantities 


86  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

are  bought  from  Lorraine  for  the  manufacture  of  steel  to  be  used 
in  the  various  engineering  and  textile  machinery  works  which  have 
grown  up,  more  especially  around  Lille  and  Valenciennes. 

Within  the  Basin  of  Paris  there  are  two  cotton-manufacturing 
districts.  That  of  Normandy  owed  its  origin  to  the  fact  that 
raw  cotton  was  first  imported  into  France  through  Rouen,  and, 
though  it  is  handicapped  by  the  absence  of  coal,  the  momentum 
it  acquired  by  its  early  start,  the  ease  with  which  raw  material  can 
still  be  imported,  and  the  traditional  skill  of  its  workmen,  have  all 
contributed  to  enable  it  to  retain  its  position.  It  has  1,646,000, 
out  of  the  7,130,000  spindles  in  the  country.  Rouen  is  the  centre 
of  this  district,  and  among  other  towns  belonging  to  it  are  Darnetal, 
Maromme,  Sotteville  and  Oissel,  all  in  the  vicinity  of  Rouen, 
Evreux  and  Gisors,  Le  Havre,  and  Yvetot.  Upon  the  coalfield  of 
the  north  is  situated  the  other  cotton  district  of  this  region,  which 
contains  36  per  cent,  of  the  French  spindles.  Among  the  towns 
engaged  in  the  industry  are  Lille  and  its  suburbs,  which  do  much 
spinning  but  little  weaving,  and  St.  Quentin  and  Amiens,  where 
weaving  is  chiefly  carried  on. 

The  woollen  industry  also  finds  its  principal  home  on  the  coal- 
field where  it  has  the  further  advantage  of  being  able  to  import 
raw  wool  from  abroad  through  Dunkirk,  and  where  the  chief  manu- 
facturing towns  are  Roubaix,  Tourcoing,  and  Fourmies.  The 
industry  is  also  followed  at  Reims,  where  wool  is  obtained  from  the 
sheep  of  Champagne,  in  the  middle  Loire  at  Orleans,  Amboise, 
and  elsewhere,  and  in  Normandy  at  Elbeuf  and  Louviers.  The 
manufacture  of  woollen  goods  in  France  has  been  carried  to  a 
high  state  of  perfection,  and  the  country  is  specially  noted  for  its 
output  of  fine  dress  materials,  large  quantities  of  which  are  exported. 

Another  industry  whicl\  may  be  noted  is  the  manufacture 
of  sugar,  carried  on  in  the  beet -growing  districts,  where  coal  is  easily 
obtainable. 

General  Resume. — ^From  this  survey  of  the  natural  regions 
of  France  certain  deductions  may  be  drawn.  It  is  obvious  that  the 
country  is  greatly  favoured  not  only  by  the  abundance  of  fertile 
land  which  it  contains,  but  by  the  variety  of  crops  which  its 
climate  and  soil  enable  it  to  produce.  The  importance  of  France 
as  an  agricultural  country  is  best  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  its 
wheat  area  is  only  exceeded  by  Russia,  the  United  States,  and 


FRANCE  87 

India,  and  its  crop  by  Russia  and  the  United  States.  Unfortunately 
the  yield  per  acre  is  low,  averaging  only  20  bushels  as  against  32  in 
the  United  Kingdom  and  29  in  Germany.  Many  of  the  plants 
grown  in  France  have  given  rise  to  industries  in  which  a  con- 
siderable amount  of  labour,  frequently  highly  skilled,  is 
required  ;  and,  although  in  many  cases  the  industry  has  grown  to 
such  an  extent  that  the  home  supply  of  raw  material  is  no  longer 
able  to  meet  the  demand,  the  importance  of  that  home  supply  in 
estabHshing  the  industry  must  be  recognised.  On  the  other 
hand,  France  is  handicapped  by  its  comparative  poverty  in 
minerals.  The  coal  produced  is  only  one-seventh  of  the  amount 
mined  in  the  United  Kingdom,  and  although  iron  is  plentiful 
in  places  it  generally  occurs  far  from  coal.  Hence  it  follows  that 
a  large  proportion  of  the  people  of  the  country  are  engaged  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil,  and  agriculture  gives  employment  to  42  per 
cent,  of  the  population,  as  against  8  per  cent,  in  the  United 
Kingdom.  It  also  follows  that  the  inhabitants  of  France  are  not 
congregated  in  large  towns  to  the  same  extent  as  they  are  in 
Great  Biitain, 

Communications. — ^The  distribution  of  ways  of  communication 
in  France  is  determined  to  a  considerable  extent  by  the  physical 
features  of  the  coimtry,  and  the  same  geographical  conditions  which 
have  made  Paris  the  capital  have  made  it  the  centre  of  the  railway 
system.  There  are  six  important  French  railways,  and  the  lines 
of  five  of  these  radiate  from  Paris.  Each  serves  a  separate  sector  of 
France,  and,  consequently,  there  is  little  competition  for  local 
traffic,  though  for  long-distance  traffic  there  is  considerable  rivalry. 

The  Northern  Railway  serves  the  busiest  and  most  industrial  part 
of  France.  The  main  lines,  which  have  few  physical  difficulties 
to  overcome,  are  those  which  connect  Paris  by  way  of  Amiens  with 
Calais,  Dunkirk,  and  Lille,  and  those  which  follow  the  valley  of  the 
Oise  for  Maubeuge  and  Hirson  on  the  Belgian  frontier.  The 
Northern  Railway,  therefore,  performs  three  important  fimctions  ; 
it  connects  Paris  with  the  ports  for  Britain  ;  it  serves  the  industrial 
region  on  the  coalfield  of  the  North ;  and  it  connects  France  with  the 
plain  of  Northern  Europe. 

The  main  lines  of  the  Western  Railway,  which  now  belongs  to 
the  State,  run  from  Paris  to  Dieppe  and  Havre,  following  the  valley 
of  the  Seine  to  Rouen  ;    from  Paris  to  Caen  and  Cherbourg  ;    and 


88  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

from  Paris  by  Laval  to  Rennes  and  along  the  northern  coastal 
plain  of  Brittany  to  Brest.  The  most  important  part  of  this 
system  is  that  between  Paris  and  Havre,  a  great  port  of  France. 

The  Paris-Orleans  Railway  connects  these  two  towns.  The  main 
line  then  follows  the  Loire  as  far  as  Tours,  where  it  divides,  one 
branch  continuing  along  the  river  to  Nantes  and  St.  Nazaire,  and 
the  other  striking  south  by  Poitiers  to  Bordeaux.  Other  lines  over 
dij(ficult  country  connect  Orleans  with  Toulouse,  and  Bordeaux  with 
Lyons.  The  Paris-Orleans  railway  brings  the  basin  of  Paris  into  com- 
munication with  the  Atlantic  ports,  and  by  means  of  the  Southern 
railway  offers  a  choice  of  routes  to  Spain.  The  Southern  railway 
begins  at  Bordeaux.  One  line  rims  by  Bayonne  to  the  Spanish 
frontier,  while  another  goes  by  Toulouse  and  the  depression  of 
Naurouse  to  Narbonne,  whence  there  are  lines  to  Cette  and  to 
Perpignan. 

The  Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean  Railway  has  the  greatest  mileage 
of  any  of  the  French  systems.  Its  most  important  line  runs  from 
Paris  by  Lyons  to  Marseilles,  following  the  valleys  of  the  Seine,  the 
Yonne,  the  Saone,  and  the  Rhone.  From  this  line  there  breaks 
off  at  Dijon  a  branch  which  strikes  across  the  Jura  to  Pontarlier 
and  connects  with  the  Swiss  railways.  At  Macon  another  important 
line  diverges,  and  after  following  the  valleys  of  the  Isdre  and  the 
Arc  passes  through  the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel  into  Italy.  From 
Marseilles  there  is  a  Hne  along  the  coast  into  Italy.  The  traffic 
on  the  main  line  of  the  P.L.M.  is  very  important,  for  not  only  does 
it  bring  the  Paris  basin  into  commimication  with  the  Mediterranean, 
but  along  it  there  also  passes  much  of  the  traffic  with  Switzerland 
and  Italy.  Another  branch  of  this  railway  runs  from  Paris  to  Nimes 
and  Cette  by  the  valleys  of  the  Loire  and  the  AUier,  but  the  route 
is  a  difficult  one,  and  there  are  many  obstacles  to  overcome. 

Lastly,  there  is  the  Eastern  Railway,  one  line  of  which  follows 
the  Mame  to  Vitry  and  then  goes  by  Nancy  and  through  the 
Gap  of  Saverne  to  Strassburg ;  a  second  breaks  off  at  fipernay, 
crosses  by  Reims  to  the  valley  of  the  Meuse,  and  follows  it  to  Namur ; 
and  a  third,  going  from  Paris  by  Troyes  and  Chaumont,  turns  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  Vosges  by  the  Gap  of  Belfort  and  arrives 
at  Miilhausen.  The  Eastern  Railway,  therefore,  serves  the  mineral 
region  of  France  and  has  important  communications  with  Germany. 

In  addition  to  these  railways  a  small  state-owned  system  has 


lines  which  run  from  Paris  to  Bordeaux  by  Chartres>  Saumur, 
Niort,  and  Saintes  ;  and  from  Nantes  to  Bordeaux  by  La  Rochelle 
and  Rochefort. 

Navigable  Waterways  play  an  important  part  in  the  move- 
ment of  goods  from  one  part  of  France  to  another,  and  carry  about 
one-fifth  of  the  total  tonnage.  They  belong  to  three  classes — ^free 
rivers,  canalised  rivers,  and  canals — and  they  are  connected  with 
one  another  so  as  to  form  an  extensive  and  fairly  complete  system. 

The  Seine  stands  by  itself.  As  far  as  Rouen  it  is  navigable  by 
ocean-going  steamers  of  small  size,  and  even  to  Paris  it  is  ascended 
by  vessels  from  abroad.  Of  waterways  navigated  by  specially 
constructed  boats,  the  most  important  are  those  which  connect  the 
north  and  east  of  France  with  one  another  and  with  Paris.  A 
network  of  canals  and  canalised  rivers  extends  from  Calais  and 
Dunkirk  over  the  coal-producing  and  industrial  area,  connected  on 
the  one  hand  with  the  Belgian  waterways  of  the  Lys  and  the  Scheldt, 
and,  on  the  other,  by  the  Canal  de  St.  Quentin  with  the  Oise,  which 
is  in  turn  connected  by  canal  with  the  Sambre.  The  Oise  with  its 
canal  extensions  is  the  most  important  inland  waterway  in  France 
and  carries  large  quantities  of  coal  to  Paris.  It  is  connected  by 
canals  with  the  lateral  canals  of  the  Aisne  and  the  Marne,  which 
extend  eastwards  into  the  mineral-producing  regions.  The  Canal 
de  I'Est,  which  runs  from  north  to  south,  brings  into  touch 
with  one  another  the  Meuse,  the  Aisne,  the  Marne,  the  Moselle, 

j  and  the  Saone.  These  different  waterways  enable  coal  and  even 
cotton  to  be  imported  into  Eastern  France,  and  iron  and  iron  ore 
to  be  exported. 

The  Seine  is  connected  with  the  lateral  canal  of  the  Loire,  which 
extends  from  Briare  to  Roanne,  by  the  Canals  du  Loing  and  de 
Briare,  while  the  Canal  du  Centre  joins  the  Loire  with  the  Saone  near 
Chalons.     The  Seine  is  also  connected  with  the  Saone  by  its  tributary 

i  the  Yonne  and  the  Burgundy  canal.     The  Rhine-Rhone  canal 

i  connects  these  two  rivers  by  the  Gap  of  Belfort. 

On  the  Rhone  and  the  Saone,  traffic  is  much  impeded  by  the 

I  character  of  the  river,  and  the  movement  of  goods  is  largely  down- 
stream.    A  canal  from  Aries  joins  the  Rhone  to  the  Mediterranean. 

!  The  Canal  du  Midi,  which  carries  only  a  small  amount  of  traffic, 

'  places  the  Mediterranean  in  communication  with  the  lateral  canal 
of  the  Garonne  and  so  with  the  Atlantic. 


90  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 


Bulky  materials  constitute  the  greater  part  of  the  traffic  on  all 
these  canals.  In  1906,  for  example,  nearly  80  per  cent,  of  water- 
borne  goods  consisted  of  coal  and  coke,  building  materials,  and 
agricultural  produce.  But,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  water 
transport  is  on  an  average  nearly  20  per  cent,  cheaper  than 
transport  by  rail,  the  amount  even  of  bulky  goods  carried  by  rail 
is  much  greater  than  that  carried  by  water.  It  is  interesting  to 
note  that  over  4,000,000  tons  of  cargo  go  between  Lyons  and  Aries 
by  the  former  method,  but  only  800,000  tons  by  the  latter,  and  that 
even  Paris,  which  has  exceptional  facilities  for  river  and  canal 
traffic,  transacts  about  54  per  cent,  of  its  trade  by  land. 
Among  the  disadvantages  with  which  French  waterways  have 
to  contend  are  the  slowness  of  transit,  the  greater  length  of  the 
journey  (60  per  cent,  on  the  average),  the  want  of  good  inland 
ports,  and  the  inadequate  facihties  on  some  of  the  canals  for  the 
transference  of  goods  to  or  from  the  railways. 

Commerce. — France,  facing  alike  the  North  Sea  and  the  Channel, 
the  Atlantic  and  the  Mediterranean,  with  good  internal  commimica- 
tions,  and  with  easy  access  to  Central  Europe,  occupies  a  position 
very  favourable  to  commerce.  Her  position,  her  varied  agricul- 
tural resources,  her  comparative  poverty  in  minerals,  and  the  skill 
and  aptitude  of  her  people,  determine  the  nature  of  her  trade,  the 
general  features  of  which  are  indicated  by  the  following  figures  : — 

Average  for  five  years,  1906-10  (in  £  million). 

Food-stuffs 
Raw  material 
Manufactured  goods 

Total      ..  ..   £247-26        £22290 

The  principal  food-stuffs  imported  are  wheat  from  Algeria, 
maize  from  Roumania  and  the  Argentine,  wines  from  Spain, 
coffee  from  Brazil,  and  cocoa  from  Ceylon  and  Venezuela.  Of  raw 
materials,  cotton  comes  from  the  United  States,  Egypt,  and  India, 
wool  from  the  Argentine  and  Austraha,  and  silk  from  Italy,  China, 
and  Japan,  coal  from  Britain,  Germany,  and  Belgium,  oils  and 
oilseeds  from  Italy,  India,  and  the  West  Coast  of  Africa,  and  rubber 
from  the  Congo  and  South  America.  Manufactured  goods  consist 
largely  of  machinery  and  textiles  from  Great  Britain  and  Germany. 


Imports. 

Exports. 

42-22 

31-09 

157-99 

63-58 

47-05 

128-23 

FRANCE  91 

The  food-stuffs  exported  include  wine,  sugar,  and  dairy  produce  ; 
the  raw  materials  are  chiefly  silk  and  wool ;  while  the  manufactured 
goods  consist  of  textile  materials,  furniture,  clothing,  leather, 
chemical  products,  and  automobiles.  Great  Britain  is  the  chief 
customer,  but  many  of  the  articles  sent  there  in  the  first  instance 
are  for  transmission  abroad.  Among  other  large  purchasers  of 
French  commodities  are  Germany,  Belgium,  Holland,  Switzerland, 
Italy,  the  French  colonies,  the  United  States,  and  the  Argentine. 

The  chief  ports  of  France  in  order  of  their  importance  are  Mar- 
seilles, through  which  the  bulk  of  the  trade  with  the  Mediterranean 
and  the  East  passes ;  Rouen,  which  receives  very  large  supplies  of 
coal  from  Great  Britain,  partly  for  Paris ;  Havre,  which  has  an 
extensive  trade  with  North  and  South  America  and  imports  cotton, 
wool,  and  copper ;  Dunkirk,  which  is  growing  rapidly  as  the  port  of 
the  industrial  region  of  North  France  and  imports  wool  from 
South  America ;  and  Bordeaux  which  trades  with  the  West  Coast  of 
Africa  and  with  South  America,  and  is  the  chief  town  in  France  for 
the  exportation  of  wine. 


CHAPTER    VIII 

BELGIUM 

Belgium,  with  an  area  of  11,373  square  miles,  is  one  of  the  smallest 
countries  in  Europe.  In  1910  it  had  a  population  of  over  7,500,000. 
The  south-eastern  region,  which  varies  in  height  from  500  to  oved 
2,000  feet,  belongs  to  the  plateau  of  the  Ardennes,  and  consists  ii5 
the  main  of  Devonian  slates,  though  Cambrian  rocks  appear  in 
some  of  the  more  elevated  districts.  Along  its  northern  border, 
partly  within  the  Devonian  area,  but  partly  without  it,  lies  a  belt 
of  Carboniferous  rock  which  is  traversed  by  the  valleys  of  the 
Sambre  and  the  Meuse.  Beyond  this  are  the  Tertiary  sands  and 
loams  which  cover  practically  the  whole  of  Central  Belgium,  and  of 
which  the  most  fertile  is  the  loess-Uke  formation  known  as  the 
"  loam  of  Hesbaye  " ;  it  extends  over  the  greater  part  of  Hesbaye, 
Brabant,  and  Hainaut,  but  its  agricultural  value  varies  consider- 
ably from  one  place  to  another.  The  remainder  of  the  country 
is  almost  entirely  covered  with  Quaternary  formations ;  in  the 
north-east,  in  Antwerp  and  Limburg,  there  is  a  great  sandy 
tract  known  as  the  Campine ;  and  in  Flanders,  in  the  north-west, 
between  the  loam-lands  and  the  sea,  there  is  first  a  belt  oi 
country  covered  with  sand  but  underlain  in  the  south  by  clay,  thei 
a  stretch  of  low-lying  land  which  has  been  drained  and  formed  int< 
polders,  and  lastly  a  line  of  sand-dunes  which,  along  with  artificij 
walls,  prevent  the  encroachment  of  the  sea. 

The  climate  is  warm  in  summer,  and,  owing  to  the  influence  ol 
westerly  winds,  mild  in  winter.  The  mean  temperature  for  Jul] 
is  about  65°F.  and  for  January  about  35  °F.,  except  in  the  Ardennesj 
where  the  summers  are  cooler  and  the  winters  more  severe.  Th( 
rainfall,  which  occurs  chiefly  in  the  summer  and  autumn  monthsij 
ranges  from  20  to  40  inches. 

The  Ardennes  Plateau,  with  its  bleak  cUmate  and  infertile 
soil,  is  of  little  economic  importance.     Oats  and  rye  are  grown, 
and  cattle,  and  more  especially  sheep,  are  raised.     Attempts  are— j 
being  made  to  reforest  considerable  areas.     In  the  deep  valleys JB 
which  are  entrenched  in  the  plateau,  chmatic  conditions  are  more 
favourable,  and  various  fruits,  including  the  vine  in  the  valley  of    j 

92  ■ 


BELGIUM  93 

the  Meuse,  are  cultivated.  The  population  is  scattered,  and  in 
the  province  of  Luxemburg  averages  only  135  per  square  mile  as 
against  652  per  square  mile  for  the  whole  of  Belgium. 

The  Carboniferous  Area  is  one  of  great  importance.  The 
chief  coal  deposits  lie  in  a  long  narrow  trough,  which  extends  from 
Li^ge  through  Namur  into  Hainaut,  and  which  is  separated  from 
the  Ardennes  by  a  great  fault.  In  the  west  the  Belgian  coalfields 
are  continuous  with  those  of  the  north  of  France,  while  in  the  east 
they  are  connected  with  the  German  coalfield  of  Aachen.  The 
principal  mines  are  situated  around  Liege,  Namur,  Charleroi, 
and  Mons,  the  most  productive  being  those  around  Charleroi,  which 
produce  over  one-third  of  the  Belgian  output  of  24,000,000  tons 
per  year.  Many  of  the  coal  seams  lie  at  a  great  depth,  and,  owing 
to  folding,  faulting,  and  overthrust,  they  are  frequently  worked 
only  with  considerable  difficulty.  The  total  available  resources 
of  this  region  have  been  estimated  at  between  15,000  and  16,000 
miUion  tons. 

Many  important  industries  have  grown  up  in  this  region  where 
coal  is  so  abundant,  and  among  these  the  manufacture  of  iron  and 
steel  holds  a  foremost  place.  Iron  ore  was  formerly  obtained  from 
the  Ardennes,  but  the  amount  produced  there  is  rapidly  decreasing, 
and  France  and  Luxemburg  now  supply  the  bulk  of  the  raw  material. 
Charleroi  and  Mons  have  blast  furnaces  and  make  all  kinds  of 
iron  and  steel  goods,  locomotives  and  machinery.  Liege  has  long 
been  noted  for  the  manufacture  of  ordnance  and  firearms,  and  is 
also  engaged  in  various  metallurgical  pursuits.  Belgium  is  able 
to  export  large  quantities  of  cheap  iron  and  steel  goods  partly  on 
account  of  the  relatively  low  cost  of  labour,  and  partly  because 
transport  to  the  coast  is  rendered  easy  by  the  magnificent  system 
of  waterways  which  the  country  possesses. 

Glass  is  manufactured  in  the  vicinity  of  the  coal  mines,  Charleroi 
being  the  chief  centre  of  production.  In  addition  to  coal,  which  is 
at  hand,  large  quantities  of  excellent  sand  are  found  in  the  Campine, 
and  limestone  appears  along  the  northern  border  of  the  Ardennes ; 
but  the  industry,  which  is  an  old-established  one,  undoubtedly  owes 
much  at  the  present  time  to  the  inherited  skill  of  those  who  are 
engaged  in  it.  Chemical  products  and  ceramic  wares  are  also 
extensively,  but  not  exclusively,  produced  upon  the  coalfields. 
Sulphuric  acid  is  manufactured  near  Li^ge,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 


94  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

zmc  works,  which  formerly  obtained  their  raw  material  from  the 
Vieille  Montagne  in  the  neutral  territory  of  Moresnet,  but  which 
are  now  compelled  to  import  the  most  of  it  from  abroad.  Super- 
phosphates are  manufactured  in  the  same  locality,  while  sulphate 
of  soda  is  largely  produced  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  glass-works, 
where  it  is  in  great  demand.  The  earthenware-  and  brick-works 
situated  in  this  region  obtain  the  coarser  material  which  they  require 
from  the  clays  underlying  the  loam  of  Hesbaye,  while  finer  clays 
are  found  near  Mons,  to  the  south  of  Charleroi,  and  elsewhere. 
Verviers,  situated  on  the  dividing  line  between  the  Ardennes  and  the 
Carboniferous  region,  is  the  great  centre  of  the  woollen  industry 
in  Belgium,  and  owes  much  of  its  prosperity  to  the  excellent  facil- 
ities for  washing  wool  provided  by  the  pure  waters  of  the  Vesdre 
and  the  Gileppe  dam.  Large  quantities  of  foreign  wool  imported 
by  way  of  Antwerp  are  washed  at  Verviers  before  being  despatches 
for  manufacture  in  Germany  and  Austria. 

Central  Belgium  and  Flanders. — For  the  sake  of  convenience 
the  Tertiary  and  Quaternary  soils  of  Central  Belgium  and  Flanders 
may  be  considered  together,  although  from  the  agricultural,  if  not 
from  the  industrial,  point  of  view  several  distinct  regions  may  be 
recognised. 

The  loam  lands  of  Central  Belgium  constitute  the  most  fertile 
part  of  the  whole  country.  Wheat  is  the  principal  cereal  crop, 
and  the  yield  per  acre  is  high ;  sugar  beet  is  also  cultivated  on  an 
extensive  scale,  and  flax  is  grown  on  the  poorer  soils.  In  Flanders 
the  districts  covered  by  sand  have  been  greatly  improved  by  the 
cultivators  raising  the  underlying  clay,  which  is  at  no  great  depth, 
and  mixing  it  with  the  sand.  In  this  and  other  ways  a  region,  which 
would  have  been,  if  left  to  itself,  as  barren  as  the  greater  part  of 
the  Campine,  has  been  rendered  most  productive.  Rye  and 
potatoes  are  the  principal  crops,  but  flax,  tobacco,  and  colza  are 
also  cultivated.  In  the  polders,  barley  is  grown  and  large  numbers  of 
cattle  are  raised,  while  dairying  is  an  important  pursuit  of  th^ 
inhabitants. 

The  industrial  activity  of  the  whole  of  this  region  is  of  con 
siderable  antiquity.  In  the  Middle  Ages  the  towns  situated  withi 
it  were  able,  largely  on  account  of  their  central  position  on  th 
plain  of  Northern  Europe,  to  engage  both  in  commerce  and  manu 
factures;  and  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries  they  were 


u. 

;e  " 


I- 

^1 


II 


BELGIUM  95 

noted  especially  for  their  production  of  woollen  goods.  As  a 
result  of  various  political  and  economic  changes  they  fell  for  a  time 
into  a  state  of  decadence,  but  have  succeeded  during  the  nineteenth 
century  in  regaining  something  of  their  old  importance.  The 
manufacture  of  linen  is  carried  on  chiefly  at  Ghent,  Courtrai,  and 
TournaiTall  in  or  near  the  flax-growing  districts,  but  the  supply  of 
home-grown  flax  is  unable  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  industry, 
and  large  quantities  are  imported  from  Russia.  Much  of  the  flax 
which  is  grown  in  Belgium  itself  is  retted  at  Courtrai,  where  the 
waters  of  the  Lys  are  particularly  adapted  to  giving  the  fibre  a  soft 
and  silky  appearance  and  great  tenacity  ;  and  large  quantities  of  it 
are  exported  to  the  United  Kingdom  where  it  is  much  in  demand. 
On  the  other  hand,  Belgium  imports  from  Ireland  a  considerable 
amount  of  the  finer  kinds  of  yarn  which  the  cHmatic  conditions 
of  the  latter  country  enable  it  to  produce.  The  cotton  industry 
of  Belgium,  which  in  1910  had  over  1,300,000  spindles  in  operation, 
has  its  chief  centres  in  Ghent,  in  Brabant  especially  in  the  district 
round  Nivelles,  and  in  Hainaut.  The  first  of  these  is  the  most 
important,  and  contains  over  one-half  of  the  factories  and  spindles 
in  the  country,  and,  though  it  is  somewhat  more  remote  from  coal 
than  the  districts  in  the  south,  it  is  able  to  import  its  raw  cotton 
more  easily  by  means  of  the  Temeuzen  canal.  Other  textile 
pursuits  include  the  manufacture  of  jute  and  hemp. 

Other  industries  include  shipbuilding  at  Antwerp,  the  pro- 
duction of  chemicals  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  textile  centres, 
and  the  manufacture  of  bricks,  earthenware,  and  porcelain  in  the 
large  towns  with  clay  obtained  partly  from  the  valley  of  the  Rupel, 
especially  in  the  vicinity  of  Boom,  and  partly  from  abroad.  At 
the  ports  a  great  variety  of  articles  are  made  for  which  the  raw 
material  has  to  be  imported. 

The  Campine  is  of  little  value  from  the  agricultural  point  of  view, 
though  some  attempts  have  been  made  to  improve  the  soil  by  the 
methods  which  have  proved  so  successful  in  Flanders.  A  scanty 
pasturage  is  afforded  to  cattle,  and  buckwheat  is  grown  in  the  more 
favoured  localities.  The  Campine  may,  indeed,  be  the  seat  of 
considerable  economic  activity  in  the  future.  A  few  years  ago 
coal  was  discovered  under  the  more  recent  formations  in  Antwerp 
and  Limburg,  and  the  various  soundings  which  have  since  been 
taken  encourage  the  belief  that  the  resources  of  the  region  are  very 


II 

96  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

considerable.  But  it  is  feared  that  there  are  great  difficulties  in  the 
way  of  exploiting  the  coal,  and  some  time  must  elapse  before  these 
can  be  successfully  overcome. 

Communications. — Over  the  greater  part  of  Belgium  geogra- 
phical conditions  favour  the  free  movement  of  railways,  and  it 
is  only  in  the  south  that  their  distribution  is  affected,  except  in  a 
minor  degree,  by  the  physical  features  of  the  land.  Brussels,  upon 
which  many  of  the  most  important  lines  converge,  may  be  regarded 
as  the  centre  of  the  whole  system.  It  is  connected  with  the  French 
Northern  Railway  by  two  lines,  one  of  which  goes  to  Calais  by 
Tournai  and  Lille,  and  the  other  to  Paris  by  Mons  and  Maubeuge. 
From  Maubeuge  another  line,  connecting  Paris  and  BerHn,  runs 
by  the  Sambre  and  the  Meuse  past  Charleroi  and  Namur  to  Liege, 
whence  it  goes  by  Verviers  to  Aachen,  and  then  on  to  Cologne. 
Namur,  which  has  direct  communication  with  Brussels,  is  con- 
nected with  Paris  by  a  line  which  follows  the  Meuse  and  its 
tributary  the  Virouin,  and  joins  the  Northern  Railway  at  Hirson. 
From  this  railway  there  breaks  off  a  branch,  which,  after  running 
along  the  valley  of  the  Lesse,  joins  a  line  which  has  come  by  the 
valley  of  the  Ourthe  from  Liege  {like  Namur  in  direct  communication 
with  Brussels)  and  then  continues  its  course  southwards  by  Luxem- 
burg to  Metz.  North  of  Brussels  the  most  important  railway  is 
that  which  runs  by  Mechhn  and  Antwerp  towards  Amsterdam. 
From  Mechhn  one  line  going  by  Ghent  joins  the  railway  fro: 
Brussels  to  that  town,  and  proceeds  by  Bruges  to  Ostend, 
packet  station  for  the  United  Kingdom  ;  while  another  meets  th 
Brussels-Liege  line  at  Louvain. 

There  are  over  1,000  miles  of  good  waterway  in  Belgium,  9 
miles  of  which  are  owned  by  the  State.    The  Lower  Scheldt  and 
the  Rupel  are  tidal  rivers,  but  it  has  been  necessary  to  canalise  th 
Lys,  the  Upper  Scheldt  and  the  Dendre,  the  Sambre  and  the  Meuse, 
in  order  to  render  them  navigable.     The  Lys  and  the  Scheldt  a: 
connected  with  the  canal  system  of  north-eastern  France,  whili 
the  Sambre  has  been  linked  up  with  the  Oise,  and  the  Meuse  wit 
the  Aisne  and  the  Marne.    The  Meuse  and  the  Scheldt  also  connect 
the  waterways  of  Belgium  with  those  of  Germany  and  Holland.     Of 
the  canals  the  most  important  are  the  Canal  de  Jonction,  whic 
connects  the  Meuse  and  the  Scheldt;  the  Charleroi-Brussels  can 
and  its  continuation  from  Brussels  to  the  Rupel ;  the  Ghent-Brug 


m. 

I 

id  ^ 

I 

1 


BELGIUM  97 

^,£anal,  which  connects  these  two  towns  and  is  continued  to  Ostend ; 
and  the  Terneuzen  canal  which,  by  opening  up  a  route  from  Ghent 
to  the  Scheldt,  has  converted  that  town  into  a  seaport.  The 
waterways  in  the  west  and  south-west  of  Belgium  connect  that 
country  with  the  coalfields  of  the  north  of  France,  and  the  iron 
ore  deposits  of  Lorraine ;  while  those  in  the  centre  and  east  bring 
the  coal-producing  areas  and  other  industrial  districts  into 
communication  with  one  another  and  with  the  coast. 

Foreign  Trade. — In  dealing  with  the  foreign  trade  of  Belgium 
a  careful  distinction  must  be  drawn  between  the  special  and  general 
exports  and  imports  of  the  country.  In  this  paragraph  only  the 
special  trade  is  discussed.  The  imports  consist  largely  of  food- 
stuffs and  raw  materials,  while  goods,  wholly  or  partly  manufactured, 
make  up  the  bulk  of  the  exports.  Belgium's  chief  commercial 
relations  are  with  the  neighbouring  countries  of  France,  Germany, 
the  Netherlands,  and  the  United  Kingdom,  though  large  quantities 
of  wheat  are  imported  from  the  United  States,  Russia,  and  Rou- 
mania,  wool  from  the  Argentine  and  Australia,  and  flax  from 
Russia.  Coal  and  iron  ore  come  from  France  and  Germany,  and 
coal  from  Great  Britain.  Among  the  semi-manufactured  articles 
imported  are  linen  and  cotton  yarns  and  coal-tar  from  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  iron  and  steel  from  Germany.  Wholly 
manufactured  products  include  chemicals,  locomotives,  and  machin- 
ery from  Germany,  cotton  and  woollen  goods  from  France,  and 
cotton  goods  and  machinery  from  the  United  Kingdom.  Among 
the  raw  materials  exported  by  Belgium  are  coal  and  building  stone 
to  France  and  Holland,  and  flax  to  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 
Semi-manufactured  goods  exported  consist  largely  of  zinc  and  wool 
to  the  United  Kingdom,  artificial  silk,  vegetable  oils,  and  "  Thomas 
Slag "  to  Germany,  and  coke  briquettes  and  zinc  to  France. 
Among  the  wholly  manufactured  goods  exported  are  cotton  and 
linen  fabrics,  glass,  and  ceramic  wares  to  Great  Britain,  chemicals, 
machinery,  and  ceramic  wares  to  Germany,  and  machinery, 
locomotives,  and  chemicals  to  France. 

The  important  transit  trade  of  Belgium  is  conducted  mainly 
through  the  port  of  Antwerp,  which  is  connected  by  navigable 
waterways  with  France,  Germany,  and  HoUand.  Among  the 
goods  imported  for  distribution  in  Europe  are  grain,  wool,  copper 
and  other  minerals,  and  rubber.  The  wool,  however,  by  being  washed 

7— (1326) 


9»  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

at  Verviers,  undergoes  a  process  preliminary  to  manufacture  an 
is  now  entered  under  special  trade  in  the  Belgian  statistics.  The 
exports  from  Europe  by  Antwerp  and  other  ports  consist  largely 
of  manufactured  goods,  much  of  which  comes  from  Germany. 

The   following   figures   indicate  the  magnitude  of   the   special 
trade : — 

Average  imports   Average  exports 
for  the  years         for  the  years 
1906-10  (inclu-      1906-10  (inclu- 
sive) (in  I  million)  sive)  (in  £  million^ 

Live  animals £2-18  £1*48 

Articles  of  food  and  drink     ..         ..       36-40  1410 
Raw  materials  and  partly  manufactured 

articles            7874  .     51-46 

Manufactured  articles 25-96  45-52 

Bullion  and  Specie 4-91  2-36 


£148-19  £114-92 


CHAPTER    IX 

HOLLAND 

Holland  has  an  area  of  12,648  square  miles  and  a  population 
which,  in  1911,  numbered  6,000,000.  Although  all  the  great 
geological  formations  are  represented  in  the  country  nearly  99  per 
cent,  of  the  whole  area  is  of  Quaternary  age.  About  two-fifths  of 
it  consists  of  diluvial  lands  formed  by  an  intermixture  of  material 
carried  down  from  the  north  by  the  Scandinavian  ice-sheet,  and 
brought  from  the  south — especially  from  the  Rhine  massif  and  the 
Ardennes — by  the  Meuse  and  the  Rhine.  This  region,  which 
includes  the  east  of  Friesland  and  Groningen,  practically  the 
whole  of  Drenthe  and  Overyssel,  the  most  of  Gelderland,  the  east 
of  Utrecht,  and  the  greater  part  of  North  Brabant  and  Limburg, 
is  a  dry,  sandy  or  stony  country  in  which  water  and  bog  alternate 
with  stretches  of  land  on  which  no  vegetation  can  grow.  The 
elevation  varies  from  a  few  feet  above  sea-level  to  over  300  feet  in 
the  Veluwe.  In  the  detached  part  of  Limburg  in  the  south-east, 
older  rocks,  including  the  Coal  Measures,  appear,  and  in  places  the 
land  rises  to  a  height  of  over  1,000  feet. 

The  remainder  of  the  country  is  of  aUuvial  origin;  much  of  it 
lies  below  sea-level,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  sand  dunes  along 
the  coast,  very  little  rises  more  than  a  few  feet  above  sea-level. 
Hence,  this  region,  which  includes  about  three-fifths  of  the  total 
area  of  Holland,  is  practically  the  creation  of  man,  and,  if  it  were 
not  for  the  dikes  which  have  been  built  by  him,  much  of  it  would  be 
liable  to  submergence  by  rivers  or  by  the  sea.  In  many  places,  lakes, 
lagoons,  and  marshes  have  been  drained  and  formed  into  polders, 
and,  along  the  coast,  land  is  also  being  reclaimed  at  the  expense  of 
the  sea.  The  west  of  Groningen  and  Friesland,  North  and  South 
HoUand,  Zeeland,  and  parts  of  Gelderland,  Utrecht,  and  North 
Brabant,  all  fall  within  this  alluvial  region. 

Climate. — ^The  most  important  factors  controlling  the  climate 
of  Holland  are  the  proximity  of  the  sea,  and  the  prevalence  of  the 
winds  which  blow  from  it.  The  winters,  though  somewhat  colder 
than  in  the  south-east  of  England,  do  not  attain  the  severity  of  the 
continental  type,  and  the  mean  temperature  for  January  is  about 

99 


100  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

35°F.  For  similar  reasons  the  heat  of  summer  is  not  very  great 
and  the  mean  temperature  of  July  is  about  66°F.  The  rainfall 
is  not  excessive,  owing  to  the  absence  of  hills,  and  only  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  the  coast  does  it  exceed  30  inches.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere  is  high,  especially  in  the  west, 
where  the  proximity  of  the  sea  and  the  want  of  natural  drainage 
contribute  to  this  result.  : 

Natural  Regions. — ^The  great  difference  in  fertihty  which  exists 
between  the  alluvial  soils  and  the  diluvial  justifies  the  division  of 
the  country  into  two  main  natural  regions,  the  alluvial  and  the 
diluvial. 

The  Alluvial  Region  is  the  most  important  from  both  the 
agricultural  and  the  industrial  point  of  view.  It  contains  the 
greater  part  both  of  the  arable  land  and  of  the  grassland  of  Holland, 
which  cover  respectively  25  and  50  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  of  the 
country.  The  fertility  of  the  soil  and  the  humidity  of  the  climate 
combine  to  make  the  region  an  ideal  one  for  dairying  purposes,  and 
Dutch  cattle,  especially  those  of  the  Frisian  breed  which  are  well 
adapted  to  the  clay  soils  of  the  polders,  are  noted  for  their  milk. 
The  manufacture  of  butter  and  cheese,  frequently  carried  on  in 
creameries  conducted  on  the  co-operative  plan,  is  an  important 
industry,  and  large  quantities  of  both  are  exported.  Among  the 
principal  crops  grown,  are  wheat  and  beetroot  in  the  south  of  the 
region,  and  oats  and  rye  in  the  north.  Flax,  tobacco,  chicory,  and 
colza  are  all  cultivated.  In  North  and  South  Holland,  and  more 
especially  at  places  like  Haarlem,  on  the  margin  of  the  alluvial 
soils  where  clay  and  sand  can  both  be  obtained,  many  people  are 
engaged  in  horticultural  occupations,  and  large  quantities  of  fruits, 
flowers,  and  bulbs  are  exported. 

The  chief  manufacturing  districts  are  also  situated  within  thiS! 
region  which  contains  most  of  the  large  towns,  and  nearly  60  per 
cent,  of  the  total  population  of  the  country.  Amsterdam  and 
Rotterdam,  on  account  of  their  position  as  ports,  are  engaged  in 
shipbuilding  and  in  employments  subsidiary  thereto.  The  sugar 
industry  is  twofold.  At  the  ports,  more  especially  at  Amsterdam, 
there  are  refineries  in  which  is  prepared  for  consumption  cane-sugar 
imported  from  Java  and  other  Dutch  possessions  in  the  East  Indies, 
while  in  Zeeland  and  Brabant  there  are  numerous  factories  for  the 
extraction  of  sugar  from  beet.    Brewing  and  distilling  are  both 


HOLLAND   ''^'  .  '^  »-  ^  '^     '''  '    ^ '  ''  ^  llDrl 

extensively  carried  on,  and  Schiedam  is  noted  for  its  gin,  the 
excellence  of  which  is  said  to  be  due  in  pairt  to  the  quahty  of  the 
water  obtained  in  the  vicinity.  Bricks  and  tiles  are  made  in  many 
places  where  suitable  clay  can  be  obtained,  and  Delft  and  The  Hague 
manufacture  all  kinds  of  pottery.  Several  towns,  including 
Amsterdam  and  Utrecht,  are  engaged  to  some  extent  in  the 
production  of  cotton  and  woollen  goods. 

The  Diluvial  Region  contains  much  land  which  is  altogether 
unfit  for  cultivation,  and  much  which  can  only  be  rendered  fit  by 
heavy  expenditure  both  of  labour  and  capital,  though,  with  the 
establishment  of  fen  colonies  in  various  places,  considerable  areas 
have  been  reclaimed.  Rye,  buckwheat,  oats,  and  potatoes  are  the 
principal  crops  of  the  arable  districts,  while  in  the  pastoral  areas 
cattle  and  sheep  are  raised,  the  former  being  of  the  Gelderland 
breed  which  thrives  well  on  poor  soils.  The  south  of  Limburg, 
which  is  much  more  fertile  and  rather  resembles  the  neighbouring 
part  of  Belgium,  produces  large  crops  of  wheat  and  sugar-beet, 
and  the  population  is  denser  than  in  other  parts  of  the  diluvial 
region.  Various  manufactures  which  have  been  established  are 
aided  by  the  coal  from  the  only  productive  coalfield  of  Holland, 
that  of  Kerkrade,  which  now  has  an  annual  output  of  over 
1,000,000  tons.  Maastricht  is  engaged  in  the  woollen  industry, 
and  manufactures  glass  and  ceramic  wares.  In  the  Twenthe 
district  of  Overyssel  several  small  towns,  including  Enschede, 
Hengelo,  Almelo,  and  Oldenzaal,  are  occupied  in  spinning  and 
weaving  cotton.  The  district  has  few  natural  advantages,  and 
probably  owed  much,  in  the  earHer  stages  of  its  development,  to 
the  special  privileges  it  then  enjoyed  for  the  sale  of  its  products 
in  the  Dutch  colonial  possessions. 

Communications. — The  principal  railways  are  those  which  place 
the  Dutch  ports  in  communication  with  Germany  and  Belgium. 
From  Wesel  on  the  Rhine  one  route  leads  by  Emmerich  and  Arnheim 
to  Amsterdam,  another  by  Cleve  and  Dordrecht  to  Rotterdam  and 
the  Hook  of  Holland,  and  a  third  by  Breda  to  Flushing.  Amster- 
dam and  Rotterdam  are  connected  with  Berlin  by  a  line  running 
eastwards  by  Deventer  and  Oldenzaal  to  Osnabriick,  and  with 
Brussels  and  Paris  by  one  which  goes  southwards  by  Dordrecht 
and  Antwerp. 

The  chief  waterway  of  the  country  is  the  Rhine,  which  takes  in 


lt)2 


ECOROMIC   GEOGRAPHY 


succession  the  names  of  Waal,  Merwede,  and  Maas.  Below  Rotter- 
dam it  is  connected  with  the  ocean  by  an  artificial  waterway  known 
as  the  "  Nieuwe  Waterweg."  Ships  going  to  Amsterdam  avoid 
the  voyage  through  the  Zuider  Zee  by  availing  themselves  of  the 
North  Sea  Canal,  which  has  its  outlet  at  Ymuiden.  The  Merwede 
Canal  connects  Amsterdam  with  Utrecht  and  the  Rhine,  by  way  of 
the  Lek  and  the  Merwede  ;  and  the  South  William's  Canal  replaces 
the  Maas  below  Maastricht,  where  it  becomes  unsuitable  for  naviga- 
tion. In  addition  there  are,  in  the  alluvial  district  especially,  a 
great  number  of  minor  canals  which  are  of  much  value  for  the 
conveyance  of  agricultural  produce. 


I 


CHAPTER  X 

GERMANY 

The  German  Empire  has  an  area  of  210,248  square  miles.  Broadly 
speaking,  three  great  physical  areas  may  be  distinguished  :  the 
Alpine  Foreland,  the  Central  Highlands,  and  the  Northern  Low- 
lands. The  first  of  these  regions,  which  slopes  down  towards  the 
north,  has  an  average  elevation  above  sea  level  of  about  1,600 
feet,  and  extends  from  the  Noric  Alps  in  the  south  to  the  Danube 
in  the  north,  and  from  the  Lake  of  Constance  in  the  west  to  the 
Inn  in  the  east,  while  a  slight  extension  lies  to  the  north  of  the 
Danube  between  the  Bavarian  Forest  and  the  Franconian  Jura. 
The  Central  Highlands  have  a  more  varied  topography.  In  the 
west,  the  rift  valley  of  the  Rhine,  which  has  a  length  of  about 
200  miles,  and  a  breadth  of  about  20,  has  been  let  down  between 
the  Black  Forest  and  the  Odenwald  on  the  east,  and  the  Vosges, 
Lower  Vosges,  and  Haardt  on  the  west.  The  southern  parts  of  the 
Vosges  and  the  Black  Forest  are  both  formed  of  ancient  rocks, 
mainly  granite  and  gneiss,  but  further  north  Bunter  sandstone 
prevails,  except  in  the  west  of  the  Odenwald,  where  crystalline 
rocks  again  come  to  the  surface.  After  leaving  the  rift  valley, 
the  Rhine  makes  its  way  in  a  deep  gorge  through  the  Rhine  massif, 
which  consists  mainly  of  Devonian  schists  and  forms  an  undulating 
plateau  with  an  average  height  of  about  1,600  feet.  The  Taunus 
and  the  Westerwald  He  on  the  right  of  the  river,  the  Hunsriick 
and  Eifel  on  the  left.  In  the  north,  the  Westerwald  passes  into  the 
Sauerland,  along  the  northern  border  of  which  is  the  Ruhr  coal 
basin.  The  Eifel,  which  connects  the  Rhine  massif  with  the 
Ardennes,  shows  many  traces  of  recent  volcanic  activity.  The 
Swabian  Jura,  which  lies  to  the  north  of  the  Danube,  and  forms 
an  acute  angle  with  the  Black  Forest,  consists  of  a  broad  imdulating 
tableland  of  Jurassic  limestone,  which  slopes  down  steeply  to  the 
Neckar,  but  gently  to  the  Danube.  Its  average  height  is  about 
2,500  feet,  and  its  rugged  character  has  given  to  it  the  name  of 
Rauhe  Alp.  Towards  the  east,  the  tableland  formation  is  continued 
northwards  under  the  name  of  the  Franconian  Jura  which  is  hilly 
rather  than   mountainous.     The  whole  area  surrounded  by  the 

103 


104  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 


1 


uplands  just  described,  that  is,  the  greater  part  of  the  basins  of  the 
Neckar  and  the  Main,  is  covered  by  Triassic  rocks,  which  iorm  a 
scarped  or  terraced  land.  In  the  west,  Bunter  sandstone  is  the 
prevailing  formation  ;  the  centre  is  occupied  by  shell  limestone  or 
"  muschelkalk,"  while  in  the  east  and  south  the  red  marls  of 
the  Keuper  extend  to  the  foot  of  the  Jurassic  escarpment.  In 
the  same  way,  it  may  be  noted,  the  Vosges  slopes  westward  to 
the  plateau  of  the  Faucilles.  To  the  north  of  the  scarp  lands, 
the  Triassic  formation  extends  over  the  uplands  of  Hesse,  though 
the  Vogelsgebirge,  the  Rhongebirge,  and  other  heights,  are  o^- 
volcanic  origin  ;  it  also  covers  the  Thuringian  basin,  which  hefll 
between  the  Thuringian  Forest  and  the  Harz  Mountains,  both 
fragments  of  the  ancient  Variscan  Chain.  Along  the  course  of 
the  Weser,  and  following  the  same  direction  as  the  Harz,  are 
the  sub-Hercynian  Hills,  which  include  the  Teutoburger,  the 
Deister,  and  the  Siintel,  all  of  Secondary  formation. 

East  of  the  Triassic  lands  lies  the  Bohemian  massif,  to  be  more 
fully  described  later.  Belonging  to  it  are  the  Bavarian  Forest, 
the  Erzgebirge,  and  the  Sudetes,  all  of  which  form  part  of  the 
borderland  of  the  Empire.  To  the  north  of  the  Central  Highlands 
is  the  North  German  Lowland,  which  stretches  across  the  country 
from  west  to  east,  and  lies  within  the  plains  of  northern  Europe. 
It  is  undulating  rather  than  fiat,  but  its  elevation  seldom  exceeds 
600  feet. 

The  Alps  and  the  Alpine  Foreland. — The  German  Alps, 
which  attain  their  highest  point  in  the  Zugspitze  (9,710  feet), 
belong  to  the  outer  limestone  ranges  of  the  Alps.  The  Foreland, 
which  stretches  northward  from  their  foothills  to  the  Danube 
and  beyond,  is  of  Tertiary  formation,  but  is  covered  to  a  great 
extent  with  the  debris  distributed  by  the  great  glaciers  which 
descended  from  the  mountain  zone.  Morainal  material  is  wide- 
spread over  a  considerable  area  immediately  to  the  north  of  the 
foothills.  The  land  is  consequently  of  poor  fertility,  and  was 
formerly  occupied  by  numerous  lakes,  many  of  which  have  been 
drained.  Beyond  the  belt  of  morainal  country  there  are  great 
deposits  of  glacial  gravels.  In  the  south  these  gravels  are  of 
considerable  depth,  and  absorb  water  easily,  so  that  the  sur- 
face is  left  dry  ;  but  in  the  north,  where  they  thin  out,  the  water 
collects  upon  the  underlying  impermeable  stratum,  and  the  land 


II 


106  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

becomes  marshy,  as  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Munich.  West  of 
the  Lech  and  north  of  the  Amper  the  Tertiary  land  reappears, 
and  is  often  of  considerable  fertility,  while  some  of  the  alluvial 
soils  in  the  valley  of  the  Danube  are  among  the  most  productive 
in  the  Empire. 

Climatic  conditions  are  also  unfavourable  to  agriculture  over 
the  greater  part  of  the  Foreland.  Increase  of  altitude  counteracts 
the  advantages  of  decrease  of  latitude,  and  the  summer  temperatures 
are  low.  The  rainfall  is  heavy,  the  mean  annual  precipitation 
varying  from  30  to  60  inches.  The  lower  slopes  of  the  foothills  are 
generally  forest-covered,  while  the  grassland  districts  above  the 
hmit  of  tree  growth,  and  the  morainal  districts  of  the  Foreland,  are 
largely  devoted  to  dairy-farming.  Over  the  whole  region  nearly  one- 
third  of  the  land  is  pastoral,  and  in  the  southern  districts  more  than 
oneT^ialf  is  under  grass.  On  the  other  hand,  on  the  alluvial  soils 
oythe  Danube,  especially  between  Ratisbon  and  the  Isar,  where 
^heat  is  extensively  grown,  less  than  one-tenth  of  the  surface  is 
reserved  for  live  stock.  Hops,  which  form  the  basis  of  the  great 
brewing  industry  of  Munich,  are  an  important  crop  in  many  places, 
particularly  in  the  Danubian  valley,  on  the  Tertiary  lands,  and  in 
the  country  between  the  Danube  and  Lake  Constance. 

The  Alpine  Foreland  is  comparatively  poor  in  other  sources  of 
economic  wealth.  Coal  is  not  found,  though  some  lignite  is  obtained. 
Water-power,  which  is  fairly  abundant,  is  being  utilised  for  the  pro- 
duction of  electrical  energy,  and  the  Bavarian  State  has  reserved 
to  itself  the  waters  of  the  Isar,  the  Inn,  and  several  other  rivers 
for  the  electrification  of  the  railways.  The  cotton  industry  is 
i  carried  on  at  various  places,  more  especially  at  Ulm  and  Augsburg. 
Munich,  which  has  grown  up  where  the  ancient  salt  route  from 
Salzburg  to  the  west  crossed  the  Isar,  has,  in  addition  to  breweries, 
machine  shops,  furniture  works,  and  manufactories  of  scientific 
instruments.  The  clays  and  iron-free  sands  of  the  Bavarian 
Forest  have  led  to  the  growth  of  porcelain  and  glass  works  at 
Nymphenburg  and  Ratisbon. 

The  Rift  Valley  and  the  Adjacent  Highlands. — The 
rift  valley  of  the  Rhine,  and  the  lower  slopes  of  the  adjoining  hills 
are  covered  to  a  considerable  depth  with  a  finely  comminuted 
soil,  deposited  by  the  waters  which  at  one  time  flowed  from  the 
melting  glaciers  of  the  Alps  and  the  Jura.     This  loess,  which  is 


GERMANY  107 

derived  from  a  variety  of  rocks,  is  of  great  fertility,  and  has  con- 
tributed much  to  the  fruitfulness  of  the  region.  The  chmate  is 
also  favourable,  as  the  valley  is  sheltered  from  cold  winds,  and 
in  comparison  with  other  parts  of  Germany  the  spring  season 
comes  early  and  is  warm.  Agriculture  accordingly  assumes  con- 
siderable importance.  The  vine  flourishes  both  on  the  plain  and 
on  the  lower  slopes  of  the  hills,  while  tobacco  and  hops  are  widely 
cultivated,  and  sugar  beet  is  grown.  As  a  result  wine,  ci^rs, 
beer^and  sugar  are  all  manufactured,  thrnngh nut  this  apea. 

bitC^ted  mainly  upon  the  plain,  but  owing  part  of  their  pros- 
perity to  the  water-power  derived  from  the  rivers  which  flow  from 
the  Vosges,  are  the  towns  engaged  in  textile  pursuits,  of  which  cotton- 
spinning  is  the  most  important.  ^yJJ^g^sga  is  the  centre  of  this 
industry,  and  Qohnat^  Thaim,  and  Gebweiler  are  among  the  other 
towns  mainly  dependent  upon  it.  This  region  has  not  the  same 
advantages  as  many  others  in  respect  to  atmospheric  conditions 
and  facilities  for  obtaining  raw  material  and  fuel,  but  neverthe- 
less it  is  making  progress,  and  Alsace  has  about  15  per  cent,  of 
all  the  spindles  in  Germany  at  the  present  time.  Woollen,  linen, 
and  silk  goods  are  also  manufactured  in  the  above-mentioned 
towns.  The  cotton  industry  has  also  been  established  in  various 
parts  of  Baden  which  has  about  5  per  cent,  of  the  spindles  in  the 
Empire. 

The  principal  towns  of  the  plain  are  the  river  ports  of  Frankfurt- 
on-Main,  Mannheim.  Ludwigshafen.  and  ,§tcasalmi:g.  Erankfurt 
has,  in  addition,  large  chemical  works,  breweries,  and  machine- 
shops,  and  is  one  of  the  most  important  banking  centres  in  Germany, 
while  Ludwigshafen  is  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  chemical  industry 
in  the  country. 

The  Vosges,  with  the  Lower  Vosges  and  the  Haardt,  and  the 
Black  Forest,  with  the  Odenwald  and  the  Spessart,  may  be  con- 
sidered together.  The  crystalline  rocks  of  the  Black  Forest  and 
the  Vosges,  and  the  Bunter  sandstone  elsewhere,  are  covered  to  a 
great  extent  with  forests  of  pine.  The  lumber  industry  of  the 
Black  Forest  is  still  of  considerable  importance,  and  the  abundance 
of  wood  has  led  to  an  extensive  manufacture  of  clocks,  toys,  brooms, 
musical  instruments,  etc.  Over  the  greater  part  of  the  Odenwald 
similar  industries  are  pursued,  but  not  to  the  same  extent,  while 
on  its  western  slopes,  where  crystalline  rocks  again  appear,  there 


108  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

are  many  fertile  districts  suitable  for  orchards  and  vineyards. 
Great  efforts  have  been  made  within  recent  years  to  improve  the 
economic  conditions  of  the  Spessart,  and  Aschaffenburg,  its  chief 
town,  now  has  numerous  paper  mills,  breweries,  iron-works,  and 
factories  for  ready-made  clothing.  The  industries  of  the  mountain 
districts  on  the  west  of  the  rift  valley  resemble  those  on  the  east, 
although  the  forests  of  the  Vosges  have  been  recklessly  destroyed 
and  have  lost  much  of  their  value. 

The  Swabian  and  Franconian  Jura  are  not  capable  of  great 
economic  development.  The  limestone,  which  covers  the  whole 
region,  provides  but  a  scanty  soil,  and  agriculture  is  confined  in  the 
main  to  pastoral  farming,  as  it  is  only  in  favoured  places,  such 
as  the  valley  of  the  Ries,  where  irrigation  is  possible,  that  cereals 
can  be  extensively  cultivated.  At  Solnhofen,  about  forty-five 
miles  south  of  Nuremberg,  lithographic  stones  are  obtained  from 
a  species  of  compact  limestone  which  is  found  there,  and,  although 
the  industry  is  relatively  a  small  one,  it  is  able  to  meet  the  demands 
of  the  whole  world.  Iron  ore  is  found  in  the  Franconian  Jura, 
yzjid  has  given  rise  to  the  metal  industries  of.^^^gfg,  where  rails 
and  carriages  are  made,  and  where  there  is  an  important  gun 
factory.  To  the  east  of  Bamberg  large  deposits  of  iron  ore  have 
been  located  within  recent  years,  and  mining  operations  are  now 
in  progress. 

The  South-Central  Scarplands. — In  this  region,  which  corre- 
sponds somewhat  roughly  to  the  basins  of  the  Neckar  and  the 
Main,  the  different  members  of  the  Triassic  rocks  appear  in  succes- 
sion. The  Bunter  sandstone  of  the  Spessart,  of  the  eastern  slopes  of 
the  Odenwald,  and  of  the  north  and  east  of  the  Black  Forest,  is 
replaced  over  a  great  part  of  Lower  Franconia,  north-east  Baden, 
and  northern  Wiirtemberg  by  the  muschelkalk,  which  in  turn  dis- 
appears before  the  Keuper  marls  of  Upper  and  Middle  Franconia 
and  central  Wiirtemberg.  A  belt  of  Lias  separates  these  marls 
from  the  limestone  of  the  Swabian  and  Franconian  Jura. 

As  in  other  parts  of  Germany,  the  Bunter  sandstone  is  generally 
forest-covered.  Except  in  the  valleys  the  muschelkalk  does  not, 
as  a  rule,  weather  down  into  a  very  productive  soil,  though  its 
uplands  provide  good  pasture  land,  and  on  the  slopes  of  many  of  the 
deep  valleys  by  which  it  is  cut  up  the  vine  is  extensively  grown, 
as  is  the  case  around  Wiirzburg.     But  the  best  soils  are  found 


II 


M 


GERMANY  109 

Upon  the  Keuper  marls,  which  have  given  rise  to  the  agriculture 
for  which  Franconia  is  famous.  Nnrfimherg  is  the  centre  of 
the  hop-growing  industry,  and  Middle  Franconia  and  Wiirtem- 
berg  together  produce  one-third  of  the  hops  grown  in  Germany. 
Cereals  are  also  extensively  cultivated  on  the  Keuper  marls,  while, 
on  the  alluvial  soils  around  Bamberg  and  Stuttgart,  vegetables 
are  raised  in  large  quantities.  The  Liassic  belt  on  the  south  and 
east  is  generally  fertile. 

There  are  few  minerals  in  the  region.  Salt,  which  is  the  most 
important,  is  found  in  the  muschelkalk,  and  is  worked  at  Heilbronn, 
Kochendorf,  Hall,  and  elsewhere.     Some  lignite  is  also  obtained. 

Notwithstanding  the  comparative  poverty  of  its  natural  resources, 
the  industrial  development  of  this  region  has  been  considerable, 
and  is  to  be  explained  mainly  by  the  supply  of  labour  provided 
by  the  growth  of  the  population.  Brewing  is,  as  might  be  expected, 
an  important  pursuit  in  Wiirtemberg  and  Middle  Franconia,  where 
hops  form  so  abundant  a  crop.  The  toy  industry  of  Nuremberg 
was  originally  based  upon  the  large  supplies  of  wood  which  could 
be  obtained  in  ttte,  vicinity,  but  toys  of  all  kinds,  and  not  merely 
of  wood,  are  now  made  there.  The  manufacture  of  porcelain  and 
glass  is  largely  localised  in  Upper  Franconia,  and  in  the  Upper 
Palatinate  where  wood,  kaolin,  and  quartz  sand  can  all  be  easily 
obtained  from  the  Bavarian  Forest.  The  Upper  Palatinate, 
indeed,  is  the  chief  glass- producing  region  in  Germany.  The 
textile  industry  is  of  growing  importance,  and  there  are  cotton 
factories  at  Stuttgart,  Cannstatt,  Reutlingen,  and  Bamberg. 
Esslingen  and  Stuttgart  are  noted  for  printing,  and  especially  for 
pictorial  printing.  Fine  metal  work  is  characteristic  of  Wiirtem- 
berg, where  it  is  carried  on  at  Esslingen,  Geislingen,  and  elsewhere. 
Pforzheim  is  noted  for  jewellery;  Hanau  for  gold  and  silver  ware  ; 
Wiirzburg  for  machinery  and  furniture ;  Nuremberg,  which  is  the 
typical  town  of  the  whole  region,  has  breweries,  glass  works, 
machine  shops,  and  various  establishments  for  the  production  of 
fine  metal  ware  and  optical  instruments. 

The  population  of  this  region  is  concentrated  mainly  in  two 
districts,  which  are  separated  from  one  another  by  the  Franconian 
Heights — an  area  of  comparatively  poor  land,  where  the  Keuper 
marls  are  wanting  in  lime  and  are  consequently  infertile.  But 
the  valley  of  the  IMain  and  the  valley  of  the  Neckar,  cut  off  as  they 


110  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

are  from  other  fertile  regions  by  the  Bunter  sandstone  and  the 
Jurassic  limestone,  which  surround  them,  draw  to  themselves  the 
surplus  people  of  these  less  favoured  lands,  and  are,  therefore, 
areas  where  the  density  of  population  is  high. 

Lorraine. — ^To  the  west  of  the  Lower  Vosges  various  rocks  of 
Triassic  and  Jurassic  age  appear  in  succession  in  the  imperial  territory 
of  Lorraine.  The  Bunter  sandstone  in  the  east  is  covered  with 
forests,  which  formerly  provided  fuel  for  numerous  glassworks, 
although  these  are  now  partly  dependent  upon  the  Saar  coalfield. 
Further  west,  salt  is  obtained  in  large  quantities  from  the  Keuper 
marls,  Chateau  Salins  and  Dieuze  being  the  centres  of  the  industry. 
On  the  fertile  Lias  soils  in  the  basin  of  the  Moselle  the  vine  is  grown, 
although  climatic  conditions  are  not  entirely  favourable.  Lastly, 
in  the  lower  Jurassic  rocks,  which  occur  not  only  in  the  extreme 
west  of  Lorraine  but  extend  into  France  and  the  Duchy  of  Luxem- 
burg, there  are  great  deposits  of  iron  ore.  These  ores — ^known  as 
"  minette  " — contain  a  high  proportion  of  phosphorus,  and  until 
recent  times  could  not  be  used  in  the  manufacture  of  steel.  Owing 
to  the  presence  of  limestone  they  have  the  advantage  of  being 
self-fluxing.  Lorraine  and  Luxemburg  (which  belongs  to  the 
German  Zollverein)  now  produce  over  75  per  cent,  of  the  German 
output  of  iron  ore.  The  greater  part  is  smelted  on  the  spot ;  some 
goes  to  France  and  Belgium,  though  with  the  development  of  the 
French  mines  the  amount  exported  to  these  countries  is  decreasing  ; 
and  the  remainder  is  sent  in  almost  equal  quantities  to  the  Saar 
and  the  Ruhr  coalfields,  the  trucks  which  bring  coal  carrying  ore 
away.  The  production  of  pig-iron  in  Lorraine  and  Luxemburg 
amounts  to  about  30  per  cent,  of  that  of  the  whole  Empire. 

The  Rhine  Massif, — The  economic  activity  of  this  region 
varies  greatly  from  place  to  place.  The  Taunus  and  the  Hunsriick 
are  well  wooded,  and  on  their  southern  slopes  vines  and  fruit  are 
grown.  Along  the  foot  of  the  Taunus,  also,  are  mineral  springs, 
which  have  brought  prosperity  to  Wiesbaden  and  Homburg. 
The  Eifel  and  the  more  elevated  parts  of  the  Westerwald  and  the 
Sauerland  are,  in  the  main,  covered  with  dreary  moors,  while 
lower  down,  in  the  two  latter  regions,  woods  and  meadows  are 
common.  The  valleys  are  often  fertile,  and  on  the  slopes  of  some 
of  them,  more  especially  on  those  of  the  Rhine,  the  Moselle,  and 
the   Aar,    the    vine    is    extensively   cultivated.      Mineral    wealth 


^\ 


GERMANY  111 

is  widely  distributed.  Lignite,  which  is  of  special  value  for  the 
manufacture  of  briquettes,  occurs  under  the  Tertiary  layers 
which  occupy  part  of  the  Westerwald,  and  in  greater  quantity  in 
the  hills  around  Cologne.  Manganese  ore  is  obtained  in  the  Sieger- 
land,  on  the  north-west  slope  of  the  Westerwald,  and  red  haematite 
in  the  districts  drained  by  the  Lahn  and  the  Dill.  Smelting  is 
carried  on  in  both  places,  some  of  the  raw  iron  being  sent  to  the 
basin  of  the  Ruhr.  But  it  is  upon  the  coalfields  on  the  margin  of 
the  massif  that  economic  progress  has  been  most  marked.  The 
Saarbriicken  field,  which  lies  to  the  south  of  the  Hunsriick,  has  at 
present  an  annual  production  of  over  10,000,000  tons,  or  nearly  7 
per  cent,  of  the  total  German  output,  while  its  available  content, 
to  a  depth  of  1,000  metres,  has  been  estimated  at  12,000,000,000 
tons.  The  coal,  though  not  so  useful  for  heating  purposes  as  that 
from  the  Ruhr  field,  makes  good  coke.  Much  of  it  is  exported 
to  the  south-west  of  Germany,  Switzerland,  and  the  north- 
east of  France,  partly  by  the  river  Saar  and  the  Main-Rhine 
and  Rhine-Rhone  canals,  but  mainly  by  rail.  A  considerable 
amount  is  also  used  by  the  blast  furnaces,  machine  shops,  and 
glass  and  porcelain  works,  which  have  grown  up  on  the  coal- 
field. Saarbriicken-St.  Johann  is  the  centre  of  a  group  of  towns 
engaged  in  these  pursuits. 

The  Ruhr  coalfield,  which  lies  to  the  north  of  the  Sauerland, 
and  extends  from  the  Rhine  at  its  confluence  with  the  Ruhr  along 
the  valley  of  the  latter  river  for  a  distance  of  forty-six  miles,  is 
at  present  the  most  important  in  Germany  ;  it  has  an  area  of  over 
1,000  square  miles,  and  an  estimated  available  content  of 
45,000,000,000  tons.  The  coals  from  it  are  the  best  in  Germany  for 
heating  purposes,  and  they  are  also  very  suitable  for  the  manu- 
facture of  gas  and  coke.  The  annual  output  now  averages  over 
83,000,000  tons,  or  about  55  per  cent,  of  the  entire  German  pro- 
duction. The  greater  part  of  the  coal  mined  on  the  Ruhr  field 
is  consumed  in  the  neighbourhood,  but  large  quantities  go  up  the 
Rhine  to  Mannheim,  down  it  to  the  Netherlands,  by  the  Dortmund 
canal  to  the  coast,  and  by  rail  to  Belgium.  For  the  production  of 
coke,  Gelsenkirchen  on  this  coalfield  is  the  chief  town  in  Germany. 

The  iron  ore  which  is  obtained  along  with  the  coal  is  limited  in 
amount,  but  was  in  earlier  times  of  some  importance  in  helping 
to  build  up  the  great  iron  smelting  industry  of  the  Ruhr  district 


112  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

/    which  now  produces  over  40  per  cent,  of  the  total  German  output  of 

/  pig-iron.  The  chief  sources  from  which  the  raw  material  is  at 
/  present  obtained  are  Lorraine,  Luxemburg,  and  Sweden;  while 
the  greater  number  of  the  blast  furnaces  and  iron  and  steel  works 
are  situated  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Ruhr  and  its  tributary  the 
Ennepe  at  Essen,  Miilheim,  Hagen,  and  elsewhere  ;  in  the  valley 
of  the  Rhine  at  Diisseldorf  and  Duisburg-Ruhrort ;  and  in  the 
basin  of  the  Emscher  at  Dortmund,  Bochum,  and  Gelsenkirchen. 
Industries  connected  with  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  goods 
are  also  carried  on  at  these  and  other  towns.  Solingen  is  noted 
for  cutlery,  Essen  and  Diisseldorf  for  armour  plate  and  cannon, 
Duisburg-Ruhrort  for  shipbuilding  and  machinery,  and  Remscheid 
for  tools. 

Upon,  and  in  the  vicinity  of,  the  Ruhr  coalfield  there  has  also 
grown  up  an  important  textile  industry.  For  cotton-spinning 
this  region  occupies  the  first  place  in  Germany,  and  has  nearly  30  per 
cent,  of  all  the  spindles  in  the  Empire.  The  adjoining  towns  of 
Elberfeld  and  Barmen  in  the  Wupperthal,  and  Miinchen-Gladbach 
and  Rheydt  to  the  west  of  the  Rhine,  are  chiefly  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  cotton  and  woollen  goods.  Crefeld  is  the  principal 
place  in  Germany  for  the  production  of  silks  and  velvets,  and 
occupies,  in  this  respect,  a  position  in  Europe  second  only  to  that 
of  Lyons.  Linen  and  plush  goods  are  also  made  there.  Cologne 
has  spinning  and  weaving  establishments.  Round  Solingen  there 
are  many  handloom  weavers  of  woollen  goods.  Elberfeld  ani 
Barmen  are  both  noted  for  their  ribbons,  laces,  braids,  and  cord. 

Among  the  other  and  varied  industries  of  this  region,  the  manu- 
facture of  chemicals  is  carried  on,  especially  at  Elberfeld,  brewini 
at  Dortmund,  glassmaking  at  Diisseldorf,  the  preparation  of  cocoi 
and  chocolate  at  Cologne,  and  fine  metal  work  at  Iserlohn  an 
Altena. 
.  i     To  the  north  of  the  Eif el  lies  the  coalfield  of  Aachen,  the  eastern^ 

(/L'^xtension  of  that  which  runs  through  France  and  Belgium.     Upon 

1 1  it  have  grown  up  iron  and  textile  industries. 

'         The  Rhine  massif,  with  the  coalfields  upon  its  borders,  has  no 
become  the  most  important  industrial  region  in  Germany.     Th 
abundance   of   coal,    the   facilities   for   obtaining   iron   ore   from 
Lorraine,  Luxemburg,  and  Sweden,  the  progress  of  science  whic 
has  rendered  these  ores  of  value  in  the  manufacture  of  steel,  th 


)n 

i 

n 

i 


GERMANY  llo 

great  waterway  of  the  Rhine,  which  permits  the  import  of  raw 
material  and  the  export  of  manufactured  goods,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  canal  system,  which  has  brought  the  industrial  districts 
into  communication  with  the  German  seaboard,  have  all  con- 
tributed to  the  economic  progress  of  this  region,  which  now  contains 
about  one-fifth  of  the  total  population  of  the  Empire. 

The  North-Central  Uplands  and  the  Adjoining  Lands. 
— For  the  sake  of  convenience  this  region  may  be  considered  to 
include  the  country  between  the  South- Central  Scarplands  and  the 
North  German  Lowland.  As  usual,  the  Bunter  sandstone  provides 
a  soil  but  poorly  adapted  to  agriculture,  and  much  of  the  Hessian 
Uplands  is  forested  ;  though  to  the  west  of  the  Vogelsberg,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Wetter  (the  Wetterau),  where  volcanic  debris  has 
accumulated,  the  land  is  of  exceptional  fertiUty.  On  the  lower 
slopes  of  the  Vogelsberg,  again,  and  to  a  less  extent  on  those  of  the 
Rhongebirge,  the  soil  derived  from  the  volcanic  rocks  is  very 
productive,  and  these  districts  are  noted  for  their  fruit  gardens. 
The  poverty  of  the  Hessian  Uplands  in  good  agricultural  land 
is  not  compensated  for  by  their  mineral  wealth.  Some  iron  ore 
is  found  in  the  Vogelsberg  and  is  sent  to  the  iron-smelting  districts 
of  the  Rhine  massif  ;  lignite,  which  has  been  converted  by  volcanic 
activity  into  coke,  is  worked  on  the  Meissner  ;  and  in  the  Habichts 
Wald  there  are  some  layers  of  brown  coal.  All  things  considered 
the  region  is  of  comparatively  slight  economic  importance,  the 
population  is  small,  and  the  industries  of  little  account.  To 
the  north  of  the  Hessian  Uplands  lie  the  Weser  Uplands.  In 
the  south  these  are  formed  of  Triassic  rocks,  but  in  the  north  the 
sub-Hercynian  hills  are  of  Jurassic  and  Cretaceous  formation. 
The  uplands  are  generally  wooded,  while  the  lowlands  are  devoted 
to  arable  and  pastoral  farming.  The  mineral  wealth  of  the  region 
is  of  some  value.  Coal  of  Carboniferous  and  Cretaceous  age  is 
found  in  the  Deister  and  the  Osterwald,  while  iron  occurs  in  the 
Teutoburger  range  and  in  the  Wiehen  Gebirge.  The  proximity 
of  these  two  minerals  accounts  for  the  iron  industries  of  Osnabriick, 
Minden,  and  Bielefeld.  Osnabriick  has  also  textile  and  tobacco 
factories,  while  Bielefeld  is  extensively  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  linen.  The  latter  industry  received  its  early  impetus 
from  the  cultivation  of  flax  in  the  vicinity,  but  the  bulk  of  the 
raw  material  now  comes  from  Russia. 

8-(i326) 


114  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

^^  Further  east,  in  the  country  round  Stassfurt,  occur  those  great 
deposits  of  potash  salts  which  have  played  so  important  a  part 
in  the  development  of  German  agriculture  within  recent  years. 
Their  origin  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact,  that,  after  the  pure  rock 
salts  which  underlie  them  had  been  deposited,  a  solution  remained 
which  contained  certain  chlorides  and  sulphates  of  potassium. 
Under  the  conditions  prevailing  at  that  time  this  solution  was  not 
drained  off,  as  has  been  the  case  in  most  parts  of  the  world,  but 
evaporated,  so  that  the  potash  salts  were  precipitated.  "  Kainit/' 
which  is  obtained  from  the  chlorides,  is  of  especial  value  to  the 
German  farmer,  but  the  sulphates  are  better  adapted  for  use 
in  arid  regions. 

The  Thuringian  Basin,  which  extends  from  the  Harz  to  the 
Thuringian  Forest,  is  of  varied  fertility.  The  alluvial  soils  of  the 
Golden  Vale,  to  the  south  of  the  Harz  Mountains,  are  very  pro- 
ductive, and  so  also  is  the  alluvial  country  round  Erfurt,  which  is 
noted  for  its  market  gardens  and  seed  farms.  On  the  Keuper 
marls,  which  cover  a  considerable  area,  cereals  are  extensively 
raised.  The  muschelkalk  is  less  fertile,  but  in  the  valley  of  the 
Saale  the  vine  is  grown,  though  in  a  latitude  too  far  north  to  attain 
fuU  perfection.  Industry  is  varied.  There  are  large  deposits  of 
salt  in  the  Wupperthal  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Unstrut, 
and  a  number  of  manufactures  are  associated  therewith  ;  while 
lignite  occurs  in  patches  of  Tertiary  rock,  especially  round  Zeitz 
and  Weissenfels. 

The  North  German  Lowland  is  underlain  by  Tertiary  rocks 
which  have  been  covered  in  Quaternary  times  by  material  depositee 
in  part  by  the  glacial  ice  sheet  from  the  north,  and  in  part  by  the 
rivers  from  the  south.  Only  in  a  few  places  do  the  Tertiary  rocks 
come  to  the  surface.  The  country  to  the  east  of  the  Elbe  may  firs' 
be  considered.  From  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  Sea  the  land  risei 
to  the  heights  of  the  Baltic  ridge,  which  runs  from  Courland  t 
Schleswig.  Upon  this  Hne  of  heights,  due  in  part  to  a  movement  o; 
Tertiary  times,  the  edge  of  the  ice-sheet  remained  for  a  prolonged 
period  during  its  retreat  from  the  south.  The  heights  themselves 
are  therefore  covered  with  morainal  debris  and  numberless  lakes,  as 
in  East  Prussia,  Mecklenburg,  and  Schleswig,  while  the  land  inter- 
vening between  the  lakes  is  generally  well-wooded.  On  the  northern 
slopes  of  the  ridges  there  are  considerable  areas  of  fertile  land, 


:s 


II 


GERMANY  115 

due  in  part,  it  is  believed,  to  the  debris  brought  down  from  the 
limestone  rocks  in  the  south  of  Scandinavia.  On  the  southern 
slopes  of  the  ridges,  on  the  other  hand,  the  waters  of  the  melting 
ice-sheet  left  large  deposits  of  sand  and  gravel,  which  have  rendered 
considerable  areas  poor  and  infertile.  Beyond  the  Baltic  ridge 
lies  the  zone  of  Great  Valleys,  each  of  which  in  turn  marks  the 
channel  by  which  the  water  escaped  at  each  successive  stage  in 
the  retreat  of  the  ice-sheet.  The  valley  from  Thorn  to  Eberswalde 
is  now  occupied  by  the  Vistula,  the  Netze,  and  part  of  the  Oder ; 
further  south,  in  the  Warsaw-Berlin  valley,  are  the  Bzura,  Ner, 
Warthe,  Obra,  and  the  Spree ;  while  still  further  south  lies  a  third 
valley,  in  which  the  Bartsch  and  the  Baruth  flow  for  part  of  their 
way.  Over  all  this  zone  the  character  of  the  soil  varies  greatly 
from  one  place  to  another.  In  some  districts  there  are  considerable 
areas  of  good  boulder  clay,  which  are  fertile  ;  in  others  the  land 
had  to  be  reclaimed  from  bog  and  swamp  before  it  could  be  made 
productive ;  while  elsewhere,  as  in  Brandenburg,  there  are  wide 
stretches  of  sand  on  which  little  cultivation  is  possible. 

To  the  south  of  the  Great  Valleys  lies  another  ridge  of  land, 
beyond  which  the  ice-sheet  did  not  advance.  This  ridge  is  marked 
by  heights,  rather  than  by  hills,  in  the  south-east  of  Posen,  in  the 
north  of  Silesia,  in  the  Flaming,  and  in  the  Liineburg  Heath.  The 
first  of  these  upland  regions  contains  great  stretches  of  sand ;  in 
the  second  there  is  much  fertile  soil ;  the  Flaming  consists  of  sandy 
wastes,  marshes,  and  moorland ;  while  in  the  Liineburg  Heath 
vast  expanses  of  sand  and  gravel  are  covered  with  heather.  In 
parts  of  Saxony  and  Silesia  there  are  widespread  deposits  of  loess, 
and  in  the  country  south  of  Magdeburg  this  is  also  the  case.  Some 
of  these  deposits  he  in  the  valley  beyond  the  Southern  Ridge, 
which  is  now  occupied  by  the  Black  Elster  and  the  DromHng. 

To  the  west  of  the  Elbe  the  country  consists  in  the  main  of 
dreary  alternations  of  high  moors  and  marsh  lands.  The  former 
frequently  occur  in  sandy  districts  which  are  underlain  by  an 
impermeable  subsoil,  while  the  latter  are  low-lying  lands  which 
were  at  one  time  covered  by  water,  but  are  now  occupied  by 
the  vegetation  typical  of  bogs  and  marshes. 

The  great  inlet  of  the  North  German  Plain,  which  Ues  between 
the  Ruhr  coalfield  and  the  Teutoburger  Range,  and  of  which 
Miinster  is  the  centre,  consists  largely  of  sandstones  and  marls 


116  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

of  Secondary  times,  frequently  overlaid  by  alluvial  soils,  which  are 
generally  fertile  and  produce  good  crops  of  cereals.  There  are 
in  places  forests  of  oak,  upon  the  acorns  of  which  feed  the 
pigs  that  produce  the  well-known  WestphaHan  hams.  Horses 
and  cattle  are  also  reared. 

The  general  character  of  the  North  German  Lowland  as  fashioned 
by  nature  has  been  improved  in  many  places  by  the  hand  of  man. 
The  valleys  and  deltas  of  the  Memel  and  the  Vistula,  for  example, 
have  been  embanked,  and  considerable  areas  of  arable  and  meadow 
land  thus  brought  under  cultivation.  To  the  south  of  the  Baltic 
Ridge,  again,  much  of  the  country  has  been  drained,  as  in  the  Oder 
Swamp  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  Warthe  and  the  Netze.  A  great 
part  of  the  heaths  has  also  been  improved  in  various  ways. 
Formerly,  the  practice  was  to  burn  the  dry  heath  and  to  sow  buck- 
wheat in  the  ashes  until  the  soil  formed  by  them  had  been  exhausted. 
The  present  method,  the  results  of  which  are  lasting,  is  to  open 
up  the  moor,  to  drain  it,  to  expose  it  to  the  air,  and  to  manure  it 
heavily.  On  the  low  moors  the  peat  is  first  removed,  and  the  subsoil 
is  then  mixed  with  sand  and  manured  with  kainit. 

Notwithstanding  the  comparative  poverty  of  much  of  the  soil 
of  the  North  German  Lowland,  the  area  from  which  a  return  of 
some  kind  or  other  cannot  be  obtained  is  relatively  small.  The 
total  extent  of  the  region  is  over  100,000  square  miles,  and  of  that 
about  50  per  cent,  is  under  crops,  15  per  cent,  under  grass,  and 
over  20  per  cent,  under  woods,  while,  of  the  remainder,  parts  can  be 
used  for  grazing  purposes.  Rye  is  the  cereal  best  adapted  to  the 
infertile  conditions  which  exist,  and  about  two-thirds  of  the  German 
crop  is  grown  in  this  region,  Brandenburg  and  Posen,  in  the  zone 
of  Great  Valleys  having  the  greatest  output,  although  East  and 
West  Prussia,  Pomerania,  and  Mecklenburg  also  produce  large 
quantities  on  the  Baltic  ridge  and  its  northern  slopes.  Oats  comes 
next  to  rye  as  the  cereal  of  the  North  German  Lowland,  which 
accounts  for  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  oats  grown  in  the  Empire. 
Wheat  occupies  some  fertile  districts  in  the  north  of  the  plain, 
but  it  finds  its  most  favourable  environment  on  the  loess  soils 
of  Saxony  and  Silesia,  which  together  produce  nearly  one-fourth 
of  the  wheat  grown  in  Germany.  About  three-fourths  of  the 
potato  land  of  the  Empire  is  also  found  in  the  Lowland,  where 
the  sandy  soils  of  Brandenburg  and  Posen,  and  the  less  fertile 


Ji 


GERMANY  117 

districts  of  Silesia  produce  a  large  part  of  the  total  crop,  which 
forms  the  basis  of  an  important  alcohol  distilling  industry.  The 
cultivation  of  beetroot  in  the  loess  districts  around  Magdeburg 
and  in  Central  Silesia  finds  employment  for  a  considerable  amount 
of  labour  in  a  region  which,  on  the  whole,  is  far  from  fertile.  It 
also  renders  the  land  more  suitable  for  the  growth  of  cereals,  and 
the  pulp  which  remains  after  the  sugar  has  been  extracted  forms 
a  valuable  food  for  cattle.  The  discovery  of  the  fertilising  powers 
of  Stassfurt  salts  has  increased  the  area  under  beet,  and  at  the 
same  time  improved  the  yield  per  acre,  while  the  proximity  of 
coal  has  facilitated  the  manufacture  of  sugar,  in  which  Germany 
now  leads  the  world.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  development  of 
this  industry  was  greatly  aided  by  the  bounties  granted  by  the 
Government  on  foreign  exports,  and  for  some  time  after  the  Brussels 
Convention  there  was  a  decided  decrease  in  the  amount  of  sugar 
produced  in  Germany. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  the  region  is  not  of  great  importance. 
Bog  ores  are  found  at  Grabow  in  the  valley  of  a  tributary  of  the 
Warthe,  and  elsewhere,  and  sent  to  Silesia.  Cement  lime  is  obtained 
at  Buxtehude,  near  Stettin,  and  supplies  the  large  cement  works  of 
the  latter  town.  Amber,  a  fossilised  resinous  product  derived 
from  a  former  coniferous  vegetation,  occurs  mainly  along  the 
coast  of  Samland.  At  Sperenberg,  south  of  Berlin,  there  are  salt 
beds  of  exceptional  thickness  belonging  to  the  younger  Primary 
rocks.  Manufactures  are  in  the  main  confined  to  the  larger  towns 
and  seaports,  which  in  the  east  are  chiefly  concerned  with 
the  preparation  for  market  of  raw  materials,  and  with  supplying 
the  more  immediate  demands  of  an  agricultural  population.  In 
Brandenburg,  Berlin  with  its  suburbs  is  of  greater  importance, 
and  manufactures  of  chemicals,  textiles,  electrical  apparatus, 
machinery,  and  scientific  instruments  are  all  extensively  carried 
on,  while  clothing  and  furniture  are  made  in  large  quantities. 
Leipzig,  which  owes  much  of  its  importance  to  its  situation  on  a 
southern  inlet  of  the  North  German  Lowland  offering  special 
facihties  for  trade,  is  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  textiles  of  all 
kinds,  machinery,  musical  instruments,  and  scientific  apparatus. 
Into  the  Miinster  "  Bay,"  also,  industries  are  beginning  to  press 
forward,  favoured  by  the  proximity  of  the  Ruhr  coalfield,  and  Miin- 
ster itself  is  becoming  a  manufacturing  town  of  some  importance.  Of 


118  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

the  seaports  on  the  Baltic,  Stettin  is  engaged  in  shipbuilding,  and 
launches  some  of  the  largest  German  vessels  ;  Danzig  is  an  imperial 
naval  station  and  dockyard  ;  and  Liibeck  is  engaged  in  chemical 
and  other  manufactures.  Of  the  North  Sea  ports,  Hamburg  has 
shipbuilding  yards,  jute  mills,  chemical  works,  and  various  factories 
engaged  in  working  up  raw  material  imported  from  abroad.  Bremen 
is  employed,  but  to  a  less  extent,  in  similar  occupations. 

The  Vogtland  and  the  Saxon  Erzgebirge. — These  two  regions 
may  be  considered  together.  The  first  is  a  low  highland  connecting 
the  Erzgebirge,  the  Fichtelgebirge,  and  the  Franconian  and  Thur- 
ingian  Forests,  while  the  second,  which  is  a  fragment  of  an  ancient 
peneplain,  forms  the  north-west  slope  of  the  Bohemian  massif. 
Both  regions  are  somewhat  unfavourable  to  agriculture.  In  the 
Vogtland,  rye  and  potatoes  are  grown,  but  except  in  the  valleys, 
where  there  are  orchards,  the  land,  on  account  of  its  elevation, 
is  unsuited  for  other  crops,  and  much  of  it  is  devoted  to  pastoral 
pursuits.  The  slopes  of  the  Erzgebirge  are  well  wooded,  but 
are  even  less  adapted  to  arable  farming.  The  Vogtland  is  without 
minerals,  but  in  the  Erzgebirge  there  are  mines  of  iron,  tin,  silver, 
and  zinc,  which  have  all  been  worked,  although  their  product  is 
now  of  decreasing  importance.  On  the  other  hand,  the  prosperity 
of  both  regions  is  mainly  dependent  upon  two  coalfields,  the 
larger  of  which  extends  from  Zwickau  to  Chemnitz,  while  the 
smaller  is  near  Dresden.  The  coal  from  the  first  of  these  fields  is 
suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  gas  and  coke,  and  some  of  it  can 
be  used  for  smelting  purposes.  The  annual  output  of  the  two 
combined  is  about  5,000,000  tons. 

Textile  industries  on  a  small  scale  have  long  been  established 
in  the  Vogtland,  where  they  were  carried  on  mainly  in  the  homes 
of  the  people  to  satisfy  local  requirements,  and  in  the  Erzge- 
birge, where  they  were  introduced  to  meet  the  want  of  employment, 
caused  by  the  decreasing  productivity  of  the  mines.  The  present 
position  of  the  cotton  and  woollen  industries,  and  their  concentra- 
tion in  large  towns  is,  however,  mainly  due  to  the  proximity  of 
the  coalfields.  The  cotton  industry  of  the  region  has  about  15  per 
cent,  of  the  total  number  of  spindles  in  the  Empire.  Its  centre 
is  at  Chemnitz,  but  a  number  of  other  towns,  including  Zwickau* 
Werdau,  Crimmitschau,  Glauchau,  Meerane,  Olsnitz,  and  Lugau 
are  also  extensively  engaged  in  it.     The  woollen  industry,  which 


GERMANY  119 

owes  part  of  its  prosperity  to  the  excellent  wool  obtained  from 
the  merino  sheep  of  Saxony,  is  also  carried  on  in  most  of  these 
towns  ;  though  weaving  is  still  to  some  extent  a  domestic  pursuit, 
and  around  Glauchau  and  Meerane  large  numbers  of  handloom 
weavers  are  settled.  The  manufacture  of  lace  and  embroidery  is 
likewise  a  cottage  pursuit,  and  in  many  villages  in  the  mountainous 
districts  provides  the  inhabitants  with  their  chief  means  of  liveli- 
hood. Zwickau  is  the  centre  of  an  important  iron  and  steel  industry, 
and  both  there  and  at  Chemnitz  textile  and  other  machinery  is 
made.  Porcelain  works,  obtaining  their  kaoHn  from  numerous 
granitic  areas  in  the  mountains,  are  established  in  various  places, 
but  especially  at  Meissen,  where  there  is  an  imperial  factory.  The 
manufacture  of  paper  depends  upon  the  abundance  of  water  and 
water-power,  and  clock-making  owes  its  origin,  as  in  other  mountain- 
ous districts  of  Germany,  to  the  presence  of  timber  and  the  absence 
of  more  important  factors  of  economic  activity. 

The  Sudetes,  which  form  the  north-east  flank  of  the  Bohemian 
massif,  consist  in  the  main  of  ancient  rock,  although  the  Coal 
Measures  appear  in  the  Waldenburg  Hills  of  Lower  Silesia  and 
extend  into  Bohemia.  The  mountain  slopes  are  forested,  but  a 
certain  amount  of  farming,  mainly  pastoral,  is  carried  on.  The 
abundance  of  timber  and  water-power  favoured  the  growth  of 
various  forms  of  industry  in  early  times,  but,  until  the  development 
of  the  Waldenburg  coalfield,  little  was  done  on  an  extensive  scale. 
This  coalfield  extends  in  a  semicircle  from  Bober  and  Schatzlar 
at  the  foot  of  the  Riesengebirge,  by  Landeshut  and  Waldenburg, 
to  Eckersdorf,  near  the  banks  of  the  Neisse.  Its  average  annual 
output  is  about  5,000,000  tons. 

The  use  of  coal  has  effectively  stimulated  all  the  industries  of 
the  region,  and,  although  there  are  no  large  towns,  modern  factories 
are  growing  up  in  many  places.  The  linen  industry,  which  is  of 
considerable  importance,  formerly  depended  mainly  upon  the 
presence  of  water-power  and  the  large  supplies  of  flax  grown  in 
the  mountains  as  well  as  on  the  Silesian  plain.  Now  it  receives 
at  least  part  of  its  power  from  the  neighbouring  coalfield,  while 
for  its  raw  material  it  rehes  upon  Russia  for  the  coarser,  and  upon 
Holland  and  Belgium  for  the  finer  kinds.  Langenbielau,  with  its 
weaving  factories,  is  the  centre  of  the  industry,  which  is  also  carried 
on  round  Reichenbach,  Landeshut,  and  Waldenburg,  and  in  many 


120  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

villages  along  the  valleys  of  the  Riesengebirge.  Other  textile" 
pursuits  include  the  manufacture  of  cotton  at  Langenbielau, 
Peilau,  and  Peterswaldau,  and  of  wool  at  Schweidnitz,  Reichenbach, 
and  Peterswaldau.  The  abundance  of  timber  for  fuel,  and  of 
fine  sand,  has  induced  the  glass  industry  to  spread  from  Bohemia, 
while  deposits  of  kaolin  in  the  granitic  areas  have  led  to  the 
manufacture  of  porcelain. 

The   Tableland   and   Coal   Basin    of   Upper   Silesia. — In 
Upper  Silesia  the  remnants  of  a  Trias  plateau  extend  eastward 
from  the  Oder  into  Poland,  while  further  south  lies  a  great  coal 
basin  which  is  exposed  in  some  places,  but  in  others  is  concealed 
by  later  deposits.     Over  the  whole  of  this  region  there  has  been 
rapid  economic  development  within  recent  years.     The  coalfield, 
which  also  underlies  parts  of  Austrian  Silesia  and  Russian  Poland, 
is  one  of  the  most  important,  if  not  the  most  important,  in  Europe  ; 
and,  although  the  German  part  of  it  at  present  produces  less  than 
one-fourth  of  the  coal  mined  in  the  Empire,  its  available  content  is 
believed  to  be  two  or  three  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  Ruhr  dis- 
trict.    The  coal,  though  not  so  suitable  for  coking  and  steam-raising 
purposes  as  that  from  Westphalia,  is  well  adapted  to  household 
requirements,  and  its  market  extends  from  Berlin  to  Vienna.     The 
muschelkalk  of  the  Tarnowitz  Plateau  contains  much  lead  and  the 
largest  deposits  of  zinc  in  Europe,  while  iron  ore  is  mined  at  Oppeln, 
not  far  distant.  /  This  combination  of   coal,  zinc,  lead,  and  iron 
has  led  to  the  growth  of  a  considerable  metallurgical  industry, 
which  is  carried  on  at  Tarnowitz,  Beuthen,  Konigshiitte,  Gleiwitz, 
J/^Kattowitz,   Myslowitz,   and  elsewhere.     Here  are  obtained  five- 
l    sixths    of  the  zinc  and  over  one-half  of  the  lead  produced  in 
Germany,  and  here,  also,  are  numerous  iron  works,  which  rely 
largely    upon    imported    ore.     In    addition,     steel,     machinery, 
wire,    and   a  variety  of   other   articles   are   manufactured.     The 
progress  of  this  region  was  long  retarded  by  the  isolated  position 
which  it  occupies  in  Germany,  but,  with  the  growth  of  railways, 
the  improvement  of  the  Oder  as  a  waterway,  and  the  development 
of  its  own  natural  resources,  it  is  rapidly  becoming  one  of  the 
chief  industrial  areas  of  the  Empire. 

Communications. — In  the  German  Empire  there  are  now  overj 
37,000  miles  of  railway,  of  which  33,000  miles  are  owned  or  con- 
trolled by  the  various  States  which  constitute  the  Empire,  while  the] 


GERMANY  121 

remainder  are  in  the  hands  of  private  companies.     Berlin,  upon 
which  converge  many  of  the  most  important  Hnes  in  the  country, 
may  be  regarded  as  the  centre  of  the  system.     One  Hne  places  it  in 
direct  communication  with  the  great   port   of  Hamburg,   while 
another,  which  runs  to  Cologne  by  way  of  Hanover,  Hamm,  and 
Oberhausen,  has  connections  with  Bremen  and  Emden  at  Stendal, 
with  the  Hook  of  Holland,  Rotterdam,  and  Amsterdam  at  Lohne, 
with  Flushing  at  Oberhausen,  and  with  Ostend  at  Cologne.     The 
capital  is  also  connected  with  Cologne  by  a  line  which  passes  through 
Magdeburg,  Soest,  and  Diisseldorf .   From  Cologne  the  gorge  and  the 
rift  valley  of  the  Rhine  open  up  a  great  highway  to  the  south, 
and  as  far  as  Basel  there  are  railroads  on  either  side  of  the  river 
from  which  important  lines  branch  off.     From  Coblentz  one  follows 
the  course  of  the  Moselle  by  Treves  and  Metz  to  Nancy,  while 
another  utilises  the  valley  of  the  Lahn  to  cross  the  Rhine  massif 
on  its  way  to  Hanover  or  Magdeburg  by  Cassel.     The  latter  line 
also  connects  with  one  from  Mainz  which  strikes  up  the  valley  of 
the  Kinzig  and  down  that  of  the  Fulda  to  arrive  at  Gotha,  whence 
it  runs  by  Erfurt  and  Halle  to  Berlin.     From  Mainz,  too,  the  Nahe 
opens  up  a  route  to  the  Saarbriicken  coalfield  and  to  Metz.     At 
Strassburg  the  Orient  Express  route,  which  has  crossed  the  Vosges 
from  Nancy  by  the  Gap  of  Saverne,  joins  the  railway  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Rhine,  and  passes  north  along  it  as  far  as  Karlsruhe, 
where  it  branches  off,  turns  the  flank  of  the  Black  Forest,  and 
goes  by  Stuttgart  to  Ulm  on  the  Danube.     From  Ulm  the  main 
route  is  continued  across  the  Alpine  Foreland  by  Augsburg  and 
Munich  to  Linz,  where  it  rejoins  the  Danube,  while  another  hne 
of  less  importance  does  not  depart  from  the  valley  of  that  river. 
These  railways  in  the  south  of  Germany  are  connected  with  those 
in  the  north  in  several  ways.     The  line  from  Berhn  to  Halle  con- 
nects with  one  to  Leipzig,  which  then  runs  southwards  between 
the  Fichtelgebirge  and  the  Erzgebirge,  and  between  the  Franconian 
Jura  and  the  Bavarian  Forest,  to  Ratisbon,  whence  it  is  continued 
across  the  Alpine  Foreland  by  Munich  to  the  Brenner  Pass.    Another 
line  runs  from  Frankfurt  across   the  Spessart  and  along  the  Main 
to  Wiirzburg,  where  one  branch  goes  by  Nuremberg  and  over  the 
Franconian  Jura  to  join  the  hne  from  Berlin  to  Ratisbon,  while 
the   other  runs   in   a   south-easterly   direction   to   Munich.     Two 
important  railway  routes  lead  from  the  German  capital  into  the 


122  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

countries  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy ;  one  goes  south 
to  Dresden  and  then  follows  the  course  of  the  Elbe  and  the  Moldau 
on  its  way  to  Vienna,  while  the  other  goes  by  Breslau  along  the 
outer  slope  of  the  Sudetes  to  Cracow  in  Galicia.  In  the  east  and 
north-east  of  Germany  railways  are  much  less  numerous  than  in 
the  west.  Two  lines,  which  unite  at  Insterburg  on  the  Pregel, 
leave  Berlin  for  the  Russian  capital,  the  one  going  by  Konigsberg, 
the  other  by  Posen  and  Thorn.  A  railway  from  Schneidemiihl,  on 
the  first  of  these,  to  Thorn  gives  Berlin  an  alternate  route  to  that 
town,  which  is  in  direct  communication  with  Warsaw.  In  addition 
to  Konigsberg,  the  ports  on  the  Baltic,  Danzig,  Stettin,  Stralsund, 
and  Liibeck,  are  all  connected  by  rail  with  Berlin. 

The  inland  waterways  of  Germany  have  also  played  an  important 
part  in  the  economic  development  of  the  country.  The  great 
rivers,  which  even  in  early  times  were  of  considerable  value,  have, 
in  many  cases,  been  deepened  and  connected  with  one  another 
by  canals,  so  that  there  is  now  a  fairly  complete  system  of  water 
communication  over  a  large  part  of  the  Empire.  The  Rhine  was 
formerly  navigable  for  boats  carrying  over  400  tons  as  far  as 
Mannheim,  but  the  head  of  navigation  for  such  is  now  being 
pushed  up  the  river  towards  Strassburg,  •  and  will  probably  be 
eventually  carried  as  far  as  Basel,  which  can  only  be  reached  at 
present  by  those  of  smaller  size.  The  Rhine  is  connected  with 
the  French  waterways  by  the  Rhine-Marne  canal,  which  crosses 
the  Vosges  by  the  Gap  of  Saverne  and  has  branches  to  the  Saar 
and  the  Moselle ;  and  the  Rhine- Rhone  canal,  which  leaves  the 
Rhine  valley  by  the  Gap  of  Belfort.  Of  the  tributaries  of  the 
Rhine,  the  Main  is  navigable  by  larger  boats  to  Frankfurt  and 
by  smaller  ones  to  Wiirzburg,  while  the  Neckar  is  navigable  to 
Heilbronn,  but  by  smaller  boats  only. 

The  Dortmund-Ems  canal  was  constructed  to  provide  the 
industrial  region  around  the  Ruhr  coalfield  with  an  outlet  in 
German  territory.  The  canal  itself  runs  from  Dortmund  to  Meppen, 
where  it  joins  the  Ems,  a  distance  of  ninety-four  miles.  For 
another  fifty-five  miles  the  Ems  has  been  canalised,  after  which 
the  waterway  follows  the  open  river  as  far  as  Emden.  It  is  pro- 
posed to  connect  the  Dortmund-Ems  canal  with  the  Rhine  by 
another  canal  running  from  Heme  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Ruhrort. 
The    Weser    is    navigable    for   larger   boats    as    far    as    Bremen, 


GERMANY  123 

and  for  smaller  ones  to  Cassel.  Under-  the  law  of  1905,  the 
river  is  to  be  deepened  as  far  south  as  Hameln,  and  at  the  same 
time  to  be  connected  by  a  canal  with  the  Dortmund-Ems  canal. 
The  Elbe  and  the  Oder  are  both  navigable  by  large  boats,  the  one 
to  Prague  and  the  other  to  Kosel.  BerUn,  situated  between  these 
two  rivers,  is  connected  with  both  :  with  the  Oder  by  the  Finow 
and  Oder-Spree  canals,  and  with  the  Elbe  by  the  Havel  and  Plauer 
canals.  The  Elbe,  moreover,  is  brought  into  communication 
with  the  Baltic  by  two  canals,  the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  ship  canal  from 
Kiel,  and  the  Elbe-Trave  canal  from  Liibeck.  The  Vistula,  which 
is  navigable  for  large  boats  almost  to  Bromberg,  is  connected  with 
the  Oder  by  the  canalised  courses  of  the  Netze  and  the  Warthe. 
The  Danube  is  of  but  minor  importance  within  German  territory. 

The  Rhine  carries  a  much  larger  amount  of  goods  than  any 
other  German  waterway.  Iron  ore,  scrap  iron,  and  agricultural 
produce  are  sent  upstream  from  the  Dutch  frontier  as  far  as  Ruhrort, 
and  coal  and  some  manufactured  goods  in  the  opposite  direction. 
Beyond  Ruhrort  the  chief  articles  going  upstream  are  coal  and 
agricultural  produce,  while  building  materials  and  manufactured 
products  move  downstream.  By  the  Dortmund-Ems  canal,  iron 
ore  and  food-stuffs  are  despatched  inland,  and  coal  and  coke  are 
sent  to  the  coast.  When  this  canal  is  connected  with  the  Rhine, 
it  will  serve  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  at  present  the  whole 
of  the  Ruhr  industrial  region.  On  the  Elbe  large  quantities  of 
lignite,  wood,  and  sugar  are  brought  down  from  Bohemia,  the 
sugar  going  to  Hamburg  for  export,  while  the  lignite  is  used  by 
many  towns  along  the  course  of  the  river.  Of  the  upstream  traffic, 
agricultural  produce  is  the  most  important  item.  By  the  Mark 
waterways,  large  quantities  of  building  material,  coal,  coke,  and 
food-stuffs  are  brought  to  Berlin  and  its  suburbs.  Coal  and  coke 
are  sent  downstream  on  the  Oder  from  the  Silesian  coalfield,  and 
iron  ores  and  food-stuffs  upstream. 

General  Considerations. — A  survey  of  the  natural  regions  of 
Germany  and  of  their  economic  activities  shows  that  in  some  respects 
the  geographical  endowment  of  the  country  is  but  moderate.  The 
soil  is  often  infertile,  and  although  less  than  10  per  cent,  of  the 
total  area  is  actually  unproductive,  much  of  the  land  is  devoted  to 
crops  which  prove  but  little  remunerative.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  mineral  wealth  is  considerable.     Coal  and  lignite,  it  is  true. 


124  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 


are  imported,  but  chiefly  to  those  districts  which  He  remote  fromt 
H;he  German  coalfields,  while  the  total  exports  exceed  the  imports. 
The  deposits  of  iron  ore  in  the  Empire  and  in  Luxemburg  are  the 
most  extensive  in  Europe,  and  have  gone  far  to  make  Germany 
the  second  iron  and  steel  producing  country  in  the  world.  The 
great  supplies  of  salt,  including  potash  salts,  have  not  only  stimu- 
lated the  growth  of  the  chemical  industry,  but  have  played  a  most 
important  part  in  the  development  of  agriculture. 

Certain  other  factors  have,  however,  to  be  taken  into  account 
when  considering  the  recent  economic  advance  of  Germany,  and 
of  these  factors  some  are  geographical  while  others  are  not.  The 
position  of  the  country  in  Central  Europe,  in  touch  with  the  chief 
industrial  areas  of  the  continent,  has  given  it  a  high  degree  of 
nodality,  which  has  been  increased  by  the  development  of  the 
European  railway  system,  and  more  especially  by  the  construction 
of  the  Alpine  tunnels,  which  have  provided  for  Germany  an  outlet 
upon  the  Mediterranean.  Moreover,  some  of  the  chief  rivers  of 
the  Continent  flow  through  German  territory,  and,  of  these,  two 
/of  the  most  important — the  Rhine  and  the  Elbe — connect  the 
great  industrial  centres  of  the  country  with  that  part  of  the  North 
Sea  upon  which  converges  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  world's 
commerce.  But  perhaps  the  most  important  factor  in  affecting 
the  transition  from  an  agricultiural  to  a  manufacturing  regime 
in  Germany  has  been  the  increase  in  population  which  has  taken 
place  since  1870.  In  that  year,  it  has  been  calculated,  the  country 
with  its  forty  millions  of  inhabitants  reached  the  limit  of  density 
beyond  which  it  could  not,  at  that  time,  go  without  ceasing  to 
be  self-supporting.  A  further  increase  meant  either  the  import 
of  food-stuffs  or  the  emigration  of  the  surplus  population. 
Without  colonies  of  their  own,  handicapped  to  some  extent  in  North 
America  and  elsewhere  by  ignorance  of  the  prevailing  language, 
and  unwilling,  it  may  be,  to  cut  asunder  the  ties  which  bound  them 
to  the  Fatherland,  the  latter  course  presented  obvious  difficulties 
to  the  German  people.  On  the  other  hand,  their  possession  of  coal, 
iron,  timber,  and  other  natural  resources,  rendered  industrial 
development  comparatively  easy,  though  the  existence  of  various 
manufactures  in  parts  of  the  country,  where  these  resources  do 
not  exist,  shows  that  the  movement  was,  in  part,  an  artificial  on€ 
But    to    its    success    various    circumstances    have    contribute< 


1 


GERMANY  125 

Government  help  has  not  altogether  been  -  wanting.     The  control 
of  the  railways  by  the  different  States,  and  the  gradual  evolution 
of  working   agreements  between  them,   have   enabled  a  certain 
amount  of  indirect  help  to  be  given  to  the  manufacturing  interests 
of  the  Empire.     Rates,  for  example,  have  been  so  adjusted  as  to 
favour  the  exportation  of  goods  by  German  ports,  while  in  certain 
of  the  more  sterile  parts  of  the  country  railways  have  been  laid 
which   private    companies   would   find   unprofitable    to    operate. 
Again,   fiscal  enactments  have  sometimes  played  an  important 
role  in  the  establishment  of  a  new  industry,  as  in  the  case  of  beet- 
sugar,  or  in  the  maintenance  of  an  old  one,  as  in  the  case  of  agri- 
culture.    But   much   more  pregnant   of  result   has  undoubtedly 
been  the  readiness  with  which  the  Prussian  people  have  availed 
themselves  of  the  results  of  scientific  research.     The  utilisation 
of  the  minette  ores  of  Lorraine,  the  extraction  of  sugar  from  beet, 
the  use  of  Stassfurt  salts  in  agriculture,  and  the  manufacture  of 
aniline  dyes,  are  all  processes  involving  the  practical  apphcation 
of  scientific  discoveries.     Nowhere,  indeed,  is  scientific  and  technical 
education  carried  further  than  in  Germany.     In  addition  to  numer- 
ous universities,  and  the  great  technical  college  at  Charlottenburg, 
there  are  various    institutions  at  which  specialised    instruction 
may  be  obtained.      For  example,  there  are  agricultural  colleges 
at  Hohenheim  and  Berlin,  as  well  as  a  great  number  of  agricultural 
and  farming  schools  scattered  over  the  country ;   forest  academies 
at  Eberswalde,  Aschaffenburg,  and  Karlsruhe  ;  and  mining  schools 
at   BerUn,    Freiberg,   and   Clausthal ;     technical   training   in   the 
manufacture  of  textiles  is  given  at  Crefeld,  Barmen,  Chemnitz, 
and  elsewhere ;    and  there  are  schools  for  those  engaged  in  the 
ceramic   industries  in  the  districts    where    such    industries    are 
located. 

Foreign  Trade. — The  table  shown  at  the  top  of  the  next 
page  indicates  the  general  character  of  the  foreign  trade  of 
Germany. 

These  figures  offer  an  interesting  addition  to  the  general  con- 
siderations discussed  above.  They  show  that  the  imports  of 
Germany  consist  in  the  main  of  food-stuffs  and  raw  materials, 
while  the  exports  are  made  up  very  largely  of  manufactured  goods. 

Of  food-stuffs,  wheat,  barley,  coffee,  eggs,  maize,  and  oats  are 
orted,  while  rye  and  sugar  are  exported.     The  chief  imports 


126 


ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 


Live  Animals 

121  ^ 

•5^ 

Articles  of  Food     . 
Raw  materials  and  partly 
manufactured  Articles  . 

106-5 
228-6 

Average  value 
of  goods  im- 
ported and 
entered       for 

30-9 
82-1 

Manufactured  Articles     . 

64-6 
411-8 

-home  con- 
sumption in 
the  yearsi906- 
lo  (in  £ 
million). 

217-5 
331-0 

J 

^ 

H 


Average  value 
of  goods  of 
domestic  pro- 
>  duce  exported 
in  the  years 
1906-10  (in 
£  million). 


of  raw  material  and  partly  manufactured  goods  include  raw  cotton, 
hides,  raw  wool,  timber,  copper,  coal,  raw  silk,  iron  ore,  chemicals, 
and  woollen  and  cotton  yarns,  while  coal  and  coke,  hides,  crude 
iron  and  steel,  woollen  and  cotton  yarns,  and  chemicals  are  the 
leading  exports  under  this  head.  Manufactured  imports  consist 
of  chemicals,  leather,  machinery,  silks,  iron  and  steel  goods,  cotton 
and  woollen  goods,  jewellery,  and  a  great  variety  of  miscellaneous 
articles,  while  iron  and  steel  goods,  chemicals,  machinery,  cotton 
and  woollen  fabrics,  furs,  and  glass  make  up  a  large  part  of  the 
exports. 

The  following  figures  show  the  percentage  of  special  imports  and 
exports  imported  from  or  exported  to  each  of  the  countries 
mentioned  during  the  years  1906-10 : — 


Imports  (average  for 
1906-10) 

£411,800,000 
Average  Percentage 

United  States    .  .     15-0 

Russia       .         .  .     13-9 

South  America  .  .     10-7 

United  Kingdom  .       9-6 

Austria-Hungary  .       8-9 

France       .         .  .5-4 

British  India      .  .       46 

Belgium     .         .  .3-4 
Italy          ...       3-2 

Netherlands        .  .       2-8 

The  United  Kingdom  and  the 
and  second  places  respectively  in 


Exports  (average  for 
1906-10) 

£331,000,000 
Average  Percentage 

United  Kingdom 

Austria 

United  States 

Russia 

Netherlands 

France 

Switzerland 

South  America 

Belgium    . 

Italy 

United  States  occupy  the  fir 
regard  to  the  combined  impoi 


-1 


GERMANY  127 

and  export  trade  of  Germany.  From  the  United  States  the  principal 
imports  are  raw  cotton  and  copper  ore,  but  lard,  fats,  and  petroleum 
also  figure  prominently  in  the  list.  The  exports  from  Germany 
are  of  a  somewhat  miscellaneous  character,  but  manufactured 
cotton  and  woollen  goods,  including  hosiery  and  lace,  toys,  rubber, 
and  potash  salts  are  among  the  most  important.  From  the  United 
Kingdom  the  chief  imports  are  coal  and  cotton  and  woollen  yarns, 
while  herrings,  wool,  and  woollen  goods  occupy  a  secondary 
place.  The  exports  include  sugar,  raw  iron  and  steel,  chemicals, 
skins  and  furs,  leather  goods,  machinery,  and  zinc.  From  Russia, 
Germany  obtains  grain,  timber,  eggs,  and  furs,  and  sends  in  return 
rye,  hides,  raw  cotton,  coarse  cotton  goods,  wool,  and  coal.  Austria- 
Hungary  exports  to  Germany  lignite,  grain,  eggs,  and  timber, 
cattle  and  hides,  and  imports  coal,  raw  cotton,  wool,  books,  and 
leather.  Among  South  American  countries  the  Argentine  and 
Brazil  have  the  largest  dealings  with  Germany.  From  the  former 
linseed,  wool,  wheat,  and  hides  are  obtained,  and  from  the  latter 
coffee,  rubber,  and  hides.  In  return,  rails,  malleable  iron,  and 
cotton  and  woollen  goods,  along  with  a  great  variety  of  miscel- 
laneous articles,  go  to  the  Argentine,  while  to  Brazil  the  exports  are 
somewhat  similar,  except  that  iron  and  steel  goods  are  not  in  such 
demand.  The  imports  from  France,  which  ranks  sixth  in  respect  to 
total  trade,  include  wool,  silk,  wine,  and  iron  ore,  while  among  the 
principal  exports  to  that  country  are  furs,  coal  and  coke,  locomotives, 
and  machinery.  The  Netherlands  send  dairy  and  garden  produce, 
cattle,  and  fish,  and  take  coal,  rye,  woollen  materials,  and  iron  and 
steel  goods.  Belgium  imports  coal,  iron  ore,  and  crude  iron  and 
steel  from  Germany,  while  Italy  exports  raw  silk  to  that  country, 
and  India  sends  wool,  jute,  and  rice. 

The  overseas  trade  of  Germany  is  conducted  through  various 
ports,  not  all  of  which  are  within  the  country  itself.  Of  those 
which  are,  the  most  important  are  situated  near  the  mouths  of 
the  larger  rivers.  Hamburg  on  the  Elbe,  with  its  outport  at 
Cuxhaven,  and  Bremen  on  the  Weser,  with  its  outports  at  Bremen- 
haven and  Geestemiinde,  occupy  the  first  and  second  places 
respectively,  and  conduct  the  greater  part  of  the  American  trade. 
Emden,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ems,  is  being  developed  as  the  port 
of  the  Ruhr  industrial  region.  On  the  Baltic  coast,  Stettin,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Oder,  which  connects  it  with  Berlin  (to  which  it  is  the 


128  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

nearest  port)  and  with  upper  Silesia,  holds  the  first  place.  Danzig, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula,  Konigsberg  on  the  Pregel  with  its 
outport  of  Pillau,  and  Memel  at  the  outlet  of  the  Kurische  Haff, 
are  the  chief  ports  of  Eastern  Germany,  and  carry  on  at  the  same 
time  a  considerable  part  of  the  export  trade  of  adjoining  parts 
of  Russia. 


CHAPTER  XI 

DENMARK 

Denmark  consists  of  the  peninsula _ of  .Jutland  and  a  number  of 
islands  lying  between  it  and  the  coast  of  Sweden,  the  most  important 
of  which  are  Zealand,  Fiinen,  Laaland,  and  Falster.  The  total 
area  is  15,582  square  miles  and  the  population  numbers  over 
2,700,000. 

Denmark  is  in  reality  a  continuation  of  the  North  German  Plain. 
It  is  overlain  by  Quaternary  deposits,  and  only  in  a  few  places,  as 
along  the  west  coast  of  Jutland,  do  the  underlying  Cretaceous  rocks 
come  to  the  surface.  The  land  is  generally  flat,  and,  although  the 
extension  of  the  Baltic  Ridge  into  Jutland  gives  the  eastern  part 
of  that  peninsula  a  more  undulating  appearance  than  the  western, 
the  height  is  nowhere  as  much  as  600  feet.  Even  at  the  best  the 
soil  is  poor,  and  along  the  west  coast  considerable  areas  are  covered 
by  sand  dunes,  heath,  and  bog. 

Climate. — Surrounded  as  it  is  by  the  sea  on  all  sides,  and  exposed 
to  the  influence  of  westerly  winds,  Denmark  enjoys  a  fairly  tem- 
perate climate.  The  mean  temperature  for  January  does  not 
fall  far  below  freezing  point,  while  that  for  July  does  not  rise  much 
above  60°F.  The  atmosphere  is  generally  humid,  as  might  be 
expected,  but  the  mean  annual  precipitation  amounts  to  only  about 
25  inches. 

Agriculture  is  the  chief  industry  of  the  country,  and  gives 
direct  employment  to  rather  more  than  one-half  of  its  inhabitants. 
Over  80  per  cent,  of  the  land  is  productive,  and  of  that  the  greater 
part  is  divided  into  small  farms  which  are  worked  by  their  owners. 
Holdings,  varying  in  extent  from  33  to  270  acres,  constitute  con- 
siderably over  one-half  of  the  total  agricultural  area.  Oats,  rye, 
and  barley  are  the  chief  cereals  grown,  and  potatoes,  roots,  and 
sugar-beet  are  all  raised  on  a  fairly  extensive  scale. 

CHmatic  conditions  and  the  sterility  of  the  soil  have  combined 
to  render  dairy-farming  of  more  importance  than  the  cultivation 
of  the  land,  and,  with  the  development  of  the  co-operative  system, 
the  butter  industry  has,  within  recent  years,  made  such  rapid 
progress  that  it  is  now  the  chief  element  in  the  agricultural  economy 

129 

9-(r3J6) 


130  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

of  the  people.  Co-operative  dairies,  of  which  there  were  in  1909 
between  1,100  and  1,200,  with  a  membership  of  over  150,000, 
collect  the  milk  and  convert  it  into  butter  under  conditions  much 
more  favourable  than  the  farmer,  and  more  especially  the  small 
farmer,  has  at  his  disposal ;  and  the  milk  from  over  90  per  cent, 
of  the  milch  cows  in  the  country  is  now  dealt  with  in  these  dairies. 
Danish  butter  possesses  a  high  reputation  in  Great  Britain,  to  which 
practically  the  whole  of  it  is  sent.  Since  skimmed  milk,  a  bye- 
product  of  the  dairy  industry,  can  be  beneficially  used  as  a  food 
for  pigs,  their  number  has  also  increased  rapidly ;  in  1881  there 
were  527,000,  and  in  1909,  1,466,000.  The  bulk  of  the  bacon  is 
prepared  in  co-operative  factories,  of  which  there  are  between 
twenty  and  thirty  in  the  country.  The  export  trade  in  eggs, 
which  has  now  assumed  considerable  dimensions,  is  also  controlled 
by  co-operative  societies  in  whose  estabhshments  all  eggs  are 
examined  before  being  despatched  to  the  consumer.  In  explaining 
the  success  of  the  co-operative  movement  in  Denmark,  it  ought 
to  be  noted,  in  the  first  place,  that  all  the  articles  dealt  with  by 
the  co-operative  societies  can  be  easily  graded,  and,  in  the  second 
place,  that  they  can  be  held  back  for  a  time  (butter  may  be  salted, 
and  eggs  preserved)  if  market  conditions  happen  to  be  temporarily 
unfavourable.  These  facts,  which  have  contributed  greatly  to  the 
success  of  co-operation  in  Demnark,  are  frequently  lost  sight  of  by 
those  who  hold  up  the  Danish  system  as  an  example  to  other 
countries.  At  the  same  time  it  ought  to  be  remembered  that  the 
reputation  of  their  dairy  products  is  jealously  guarded  both  by  the 
people  and  the  Government  of  Denmark. 

Manufactures. — As  Denmark  is  practically  without  mineral 
wealth  its  manufactures  have  not  attained  more  than  local  import- 
ance. Shipbuilding,  and  industries  connected  therewith,  have 
grown  up  at  several  of  the  ports,  especially  Copenhagen,  and  agri- 
cultural machinery  is  made  at  various  places.  There  are  cement 
works  on  the  west  coast,  where  chalk  and  clay  are  both  abundant 
sugar  is  produced  in  the  beet-growing  districts ;  artificial  manur 
is  manufactured  at  many  of  the  ports ;  and  breweries  are  scatter^ 
over  the  country. 

Commerce. — Butter,  bacon,  eggs,  and  five  stock  make  up  thi 
bulk  of  the  exports.     Of  each  of  the  first  three  of  these  about  95  per 
cent,  goes  to  the  United  Kingdom,  while  Germany  is  the  principi 


1 

er 

I 


t 


DENMARK  131 

purchaser  of  live  stock.  The  imports  include  large  quantities 
of  grain  and  feeding  stuffs,  oil-cake  being  the  most  important 
item  on  the  list.  Coal,  textile  goods,  timber,  metals,  and 
manufactured  articles  of  various  kinds  are  imported.  The  average 
value  of  special  imports  for  the  five  years  1906-10  was  ;f32,000,000, 
and  of  special  exports  ;f24,000,000. 


CHAPTER  XII 

SWITZERLAND 

Switzerland,  with  an  area  of  15,976  square  miles,  may  be  divided 
into  three  physical  regions — the  Alps,  the  Central  Plateau,  and  the 
Jura — which  extend  across  the  country  from  south-west  to  north- 
east. The  Alps,  which  cover  about  three-fifths  of  the  whole  of 
Switzerland,  rise  in  places  to  great  heights,  but  are  penetrated  by 
the  longitudinal  valleys  of  the  Rhine,  the  Rhone,  the  Inn,  and 
numerous  other  rivers,  so  that  their  topography  is  very  varied. 
The  Central  Plateau,  whose  area  is  about  one-half  that  of  the 
Alpine  region,  has  been  much  cut  up  by  the  rivers  which  flow 
across  it,  and  its  height  ranges  from  1,000  to  3,000  feet  above 
sea-level ;  it  consists  of  Tertiary  sandstones  generally  covered  by 
glacial  deposits  which  frequently  provide  a  fertile  soil.  The  Jura, 
which  occupies  the  remainder  of  the  country,  is  of  limestone  forma- 
tion, and  has  an  average  height  of  about  3,000  feet ;  it  has  been 
thrown  into  a  great  series  of  folds,  which  run  nearly  parallel  to  one 
another  and  present  a  serious  barrier  to  communications. 

Climate. — The  climatic  conditions  of  Switzerland  vary  greatly 
with  altitude,  with  the  slope  of  the  land  from,  or  towards,  the  sun, 
and  with  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds.  The  mean  tempera- 
ture of  the  plateau  in  January  ranges  from  about  32°F.  in  the 
lowlands  to  about  26°F.  in  the  uplands,  and  in  July  from  about 
68°F.  in  the  former  districts  to  about  62°F.  in  the  latter.  The 
temperature  on  the  mountains  decreases  with  increasing  elevation, 
and  over  considerable  areas  snow  lies  throughout  the  year,  while  in 
the  Jura  the  climate  is  somewhat  more  severe  than  at  similar 
altitudes  on  the  Alps.  Several  factors  which  introduce  local  varia- 
tions, frequently  of  considerable  economic  importance,  may  be 
noted.  The  larger  lakes  exercise  a  modifying  influence  upon  the 
winter  temperatures  of  the  land  in  their  vicinity;  the  difference 
in  mean  temperatures  on  the  two  slopes  of  a  valley,  one  of  which 
faces  the  sun  while  the  other  looks  away  from  it,  frequently  corre- 
sponds to  a  difference  of  many  degrees  in  latitude ;  the  Fohn 
winds  hasten  the  spring  in  the  valleys  down  which  they  blow. 
The  precipitation  varies  greatly  from  one  place  to  another,  but  over 
the  plateau  it  is  generally  between  30  and  40  inches,  while  on  the  Alps 

132  -M 


SWITZERLAND  133 

it  is  as  a  rule  much  greater,  though  some  of  the  Alpine  valleys  are 
so  sheltered  from  the  rain-bearing  winds  that  irrigation  is  necessary. 

The  Alpine  Region. — ^The  cultivated  area  is  confined  to  the 
valleys  which  produce  cereals,  fruit,  and  vegetables.  In  the  Valais, 
which  is  the  valley,  par  excellence,  the  vine  is  extensively  cultivated, 
and  wine  is  an  important  item  in  the  food  of  the  inhabitants. 
Pastoral  farming  is,  nevertheless,  the  main  occupation  of  the  people 
who  dwell  within  the  Alpine  zone.  In  the  spring  the  cattle  are 
driven  forth  from  the  villages  in  the  valley,  where  they  have  spent 
the  winter,  to  the  "  voralp  "  (the  lowest  bit  of  pasture  above  the 
timber-Hne).  Later  on,  when  the  snow  has  melted,  they  are  moved 
to  the  "  alp  "  proper  (the  highest  pasture  land  immediately  below 
the  limit  of  perpetual  snow)  where  they  spend  the  summer,  returning 
to  the  "voralp"  for  a  short  time  in  the  autumn  before  descending 
into  the  valley  again  for  the  winter.  During  the  summer  sojourn 
on  the  "  alps  "  the  cows  yield  rich  milk  from  which  large  quantities 
of  cheese  are  made  for  export.  Other  manufactures  are  of  little 
importance,  though  it  is  not  impossible  that  the  increased  use  of 
water-power  may  lead  to  their  development  in  this  region  in  the 
near  future.  The  large  numbers  of  tourists  who  visit  Switzerland 
each  year  provide  a  great  deal  of  emplojnnent  of  one  kind  or  another, 
and  many  of  the  Swiss  hotels,  in  which  £32,000,000  is  said  to  be 
invested,  are  situated  within  the  Alpine  zone. 

The  Central  Plateau  is  the  best  cultivated  and  most  densely 
populated  part  of  Switzerland.  Cereals  are  grown,  but  not  in 
sufficient  quantities  to  meet  the  home  demand,  and  potatoes  supply 
a  considerable  part  of  the  food  of  the  people,  while  the  vine  flourishes 
best  round  Lakes  Geneva  and  Neuchatel.  The  area  under  crops 
is  decreasing  before  that  under  grass,  partly  because  of  the  increased 
demand  for  milk  for  the  manufacture  of  cheese  and  chocolate 
and  for  export  in  a  condensed  form. 

Several  causes  have  contributed  to  the  growth  of  industrial  life 
in  Switzerland.  Its  origin  is  probably  to  be  found  in  the  various 
manufactures  carried  on  by  the  people  in  their  own  homes  during 
their  spare  time  in  the  winter  months.  The  decline  of  these  domestic 
pursuits  before  the  growth  of  the  factory  system  in  other  countries, 
and  the  increase  in  the  population  of  Switzerland  itself,  rendered 
necessary  an  outlet  for  those  whom  the  soil  was  unable  to  support,  and 
for  whom  no  colonies  of  their  own  were  available.     Over-population 


134  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

has  probably  ceased  to  be  operative,  as  Italian  labour  is  now 
employed  in  some  of  the  cotton  mills.  The  growth  of  industry 
was  further  fostered  by  the  abundant  supplies  of  water-power, 
of  which  full  use  has  not  even  yet  been  made.  The  manufacture 
of  cotton  goods  holds  the  first  place  in  importance,  the  cantons 
principally  engaged  therein  being  Zurich,  St.  Gallen,  Aargau,  and 
Glarus  (the  last  of  which,  indeed,  belongs  to  the  Alpine  zone). 
Water-power  is  used  to  work  most  of  the  mills,  either  directly  by 
driving  turbines,  or  indirectly  by  generating  electricity.  Spinning 
is  chiefly  concentrated  in  Winterthur  and  the  surrounding  villages. 
Wald  is  noted  for  its  muslins  and  the  fine  calico  required  for 
embroidery.  Glarus  manufactures  bleaching  and  printing  cloth, 
and  is  also  engaged  in  calico  printing.  In  St.  Gallen,  Appenzell, 
and  elsewhere,  embroidery  is  carried  on  both  in  factories  and  in 
sheds  attached  to  the  homes  of  the  people  engaged  therein.  Switzer- 
land ranks  next  to  the  United  States,  France,  and  Germany  in 
the  manufacture  of  woven  silk  goods.  This  industry,  which  has 
settled  in  the  cantons  of  Zurich  and  Basel,  was  formerly  a  domestic 
one,  but  has  now  been  taken  over  by  power-looms,  the  number 
of  which  has  greatly  increased  during  the  last  thirty  years.  Of 
other  manufactures  the  construction  of  various  kinds  of  machinery 
is  the  most  important.  Riiti  and  Horgen,  both  in  the  canton  of 
Zurich,  produce  textile  machines;  agricultural  implements  are  made 
at  Frauenf eld ;  Geneva  has  a  large  output  of  dynamos ;  Zurich 
is  engaged  in  various  kinds  of  mechanical  work.  Other  industries 
of  the  Central  Plateau  include  brewing,  chocolate-making,  the 
preparation  of  condensed  milk,  and  the  manufacture  of  chemicals. 

The  Jura. — On  the  limestone  region  of  the  Jura  the  soil  is  poor 
and  the  climate  severe.  Only  a  small  area  is  fit  for  cultivation, 
and  pastoral  farming  is  the  main  support  of  the  agricultural  popula- 
tion. The  development  of  watch-making,  introduced  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  and  for  long  carried  on  as  a  purely  domestic 
pursuit,  has  proved  the  salvation  of  the  region.  Within  recent 
years  the  industry  has  been  partially  concentrated  in  large  factories, 
situated  principally  at  Locle  and  Chaux-de-Fondes.  In  1911 
Switzerland  exported  over  11,000,000  watches,  most  of  which  wen 
made  in  the  Jura. 

Communications. — ^The  development  of  navigation  on  the  Rhine, 
between  Strassburg  and  Basel,  has,  within  the  last  few  years,  enable^ 


SWITZERLAND  135 

Switzerland  to  import  considerable  quantities  of  raw  material  such 
as  iron,  coal,  and  phosphates,  by  water,  and  to  export  some  of  her 
manufactured  goods  in  the  same  way.  It  is  hoped  eventually 
to  continue  the  navigable  waterway  as  far  as  Lake  Constance. 
Swiss  railways  are  important  largely  because  of  their  trans- 
Alpine  connections.  A  line  from  Geneva  by  Lausanne  follows  the 
shore  of  Lake  Geneva  and  the  valley  of  the  Rhone  to  Brig,  whence 
it  passes  by  the  Simplon  tunnel  into  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Toce, 
and  thus  unites  the  railway  systems  of  France  and  Italy.  The 
railways  of  Western  Germany  meet  at  Basel,  and  from  that  town  a 
line  goes  through  Lucerne,  and,  by  the  valley  of  the  Reuss  and  the  St. 
Gothard  tunnel,  into  the  valley  of  the  Ticino.  With  this  latter  way 
to  Italy  the  Simplon  route  has  now  entered  into  competition, 
since  the  construction  of  the  Lotschberg  tunnel  through  the  Bernese 
Oberland  has  opened  up  direct  railway  communication  between 
Bern,  which  is  connected  with  Basel,  and  Brig.  With  the  East, 
communication  is  maintained  by  lines  which  go  from  Basel  by  the 
valley  of  the  Rhine,  and  from  Zurich  by  the  shores  of  Lakes  Zurich 
and  Walenstadt  and  the  valley  of  the  Rhine,  to  Feldkirch,  in  the 
Vorarlberg,  whence  there  is  a  route  to  Innsbruck  by  the  Arlberg 
tunnel. 

Commerce. — The  imports  of  Switzerland  include  food-stuffs, 
raw  materials,  and  manufactured  goods,  while  the  exports  consist 
principally  of  manufactured  goods.  The  following  figures  indicate 
the  nature  of  the  special  trade  for  the  years  1906-10  : — 

Imports  Exports 

(in  i  millions).  (in  i  millions). 

Raw  Materials           .         24-36  5-27 

Food-stuffs                 .         18-21  5-84 

Manufactured  Goods          21-34  33-32 


6392  44-44 

Raw  silk,  cotton  and  wool,  coal,  and  metals  make  up  the  bulk 
of  the  raw  materials  imported  ;  food-stuffs  include  wheat  and  other 
cereals,  live  animals,  wine,  sugar,  fruit,  and  vegetables  ;  manufac- 
tures consist  largely  of  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  iron  and  steel, 
and  machinery.  Among  the  most  important  manufactures  ex- 
ported are  cotton  goods  (including  piece-goods,  ribbons,  embroidery, 
and  lace),  silk  goods,  watches  and  clocks,  machinery,  and  cheese. 


CHAPTER   XIII 

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY 

Austria-Hungary  consists  not  of  a  single  state,  but  of  an 
agglomeration  of  states,  each  of  which  has  a  geographical  basis, 
although  the  countr}^  as  a  whole  has  none.  The  Bohemian  massif, 
the  Eastern  Alps,  the  Danubian  plains,  the  Carpathian  mountains, 
and  the  Dinaric  range  are  the  great  physical  regions  around  which 
the  lands  of  the  Dual  Monarchy  are  grouped.  The  Danube  itself, 
which  serves  as  the  only  connecting  link  between  these  different 
regions,  does  so  only  partially  and  imperfectly  ;  Bohemia,  for 
example,  drains  to  the  Elbe,  Galicia  and  Bukovina  to  the  Vistula 
and  the  Dniester,  and  the  Tyrol  to  the  Adige.  In  these  circumstances 
it  is  better,  instead  of  giving  an  account  of  the  general  geographical 
features  of  the  whole  Monarchy,  to  treat  each  of  the  parts  separately. 

THE  empire  of  AUSTRIA 

Bohemia  consists  in  the  main  of  an  ancient  block  of  Archaean  age, 
though  Silurian  rocks  cover  a  wide  extent  of  country  between  Pilsen 
and  Prague.  To  the  west  and  north  of  these  Silurian  rocks  is  a  dis- 
trict in  which  the  Coal  Measures  were  deposited  in  a  great  inland  lake, 
while  in  the  north  and  north-east  of  Bohemia,  where  the  ancient 
massif  fractured  and  sank  to  a  lower  level,  there  is  a  large  area 
of  Cretaceous  rock,  in  which  many  of  the  river  valleys  are  covered 
with  Tertiary  and  Quaternary  material.  The  Mittelgebirge  in  the 
north  are  of  volcanic  origin.  The  mountains  surrounding 
Bohemia,  though  they  frequently  form  a  serious  barrier  to  com- 
munications, do  not  rise  to  any  great  height,  the  average  elevation 
of  the  Bohmerwald,  on  the  south-west,  being  about  4,000  feet,  and 
of  the  Erzgebirge,  on  the  north-west,  about  2,500  feet.  On  the 
north-east  are  the  Sudetes,  the  northern  part  of  which  is  known 
as  the  Riesengebirge.  To  the  south  of  these  latter  mountains  lies 
the  coal  basin  of  Waldenburg,  which  extends  into  Silesia.  On 
the  south-east  towards  Moravia  there  is  no  mountain  range,  and 
the  two  countries  are  separated  by  a  line  of  uplands  which  nowhere 
forms  a  well-defined  boundary. 

Climatic  conditions  are,  on  the  whole,  favourable  to  agriculture. 

136 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY  137 

Especially  is  this  the  case  in  the  north,  where  the  elevation  is  lower 
than  in  the  south.  There  is  sufficient  heat  in  summer  to  ripen 
maize  and  the  vine,  and,  although  the  winters  are  cold,  they  are 
not  prolonged.  The  rainfall  varies  from  20  inches,  and  even  less 
in  some  parts  of  the  interior,  to  40  inches  and  more  on  the  mountains 
of  the  north-west  and  south-west. 

Over  one-half  of  the  surface  consists  of  arable  land.  In  the 
south,  the  soils  upon  the  Archaean  rocks  are  generally  poor  and 
infertile,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  Budweis,  the  only  large 
town  of  the  region,  besides  being  at  the  meeting  place  of  several 
important  Unes  of  communication,  is  situated  where  Tertiary 
materials  have  been  deposited  in  a  basin  on  the  older  rock.  Except 
in  such  favoured  locaUties  rye  is  the  prevaiUng  crop ;  grazing 
is  an  important  pursuit,  and  n^uch  of  the  land  is  still  forested. 
In  the  north,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  much  fertile  soil,  especially 
in  those  river  valleys  which  are  covered  with  recent  alluvium,  and 
which  contain  such  districts  as  the  "Golden  Road," near  Koniggratz, 
and  the  "  Garden  of  Bohemia,"  near  Leitmeritz ;  and  in  the 
volcanic  areas  where  there  are  fruitful  tracts  of  country,  such  as 
that  one  known  as  "  Paradise  "  in  the  Mittelgebirge,  near  Teplitz. 
These  alluvial  and  volcanic  soils  are  famed  for  their  crops  of  hops 
and  sugar  beet,  although  both  are  also  grown  within  the  Cretaceous 
area.  Bohemia  produces  more  than  half  the  sugar  manufactured 
within  the  empire,  and  exports  a  considerable  amount.  The 
chief  collecting  centre  is  Aussig,  on  the  Elbe,  whence  the  sugar 
can  be  sent  by  water  to  Hamburg.  In  the  country  round  Saaz, 
fifty  miles  north-east  of  Karlsbad,  is  grown  more  than  half  the  hop 
crop  of  Austria-Hungary.  Wheat  is  cultivated  chiefly  on  the 
Cretaceous  soils,  and  the  yield  per  acre  is  high,  averaging  from 
28  to  30  bushels.  Potatoes,  which  form  the  staple  food  of  the 
inhabitants,  are  extensively  grown  on  all  kinds  of  soil,    y- 

The  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  is  extensive.  Coal  is  obtained 
at  Kladno  and  Schlan,  to  the  north-west,  and  at  Rakonitz  to  the 
west,  of  Prague,  and  in  the  country  about  Pilsen.  Iron  ore  occurs 
in  the  Palaeozoic  rocks  between  Prague  and  Pilsen,  and  is  mined 
at  Krusnahora  and  at  Nucic.  Lignite  is  found  along  the  site 
of  ancient  swamps  which  stretched  from  Aussig  to  the  Eger.  Over 
40  per  cent,  of  the  lignite  mined  is  exported,  large  quantities 
going  to  Germany,  partly  by  water. 


138  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

Bohemia  is  the  most  important  industrial  region  in  Austria-] 
Hungary.  The  proximity  of  coal  and  iron  ore  has  led  to  the  develop- 
ment of  iron  foundries  at  Kladno  and  Konigshof ,  and  industrial  andj 
agricultural  machinery  is  manufactured  at  Pilsen  and  Prague  not! 
far  off,  as  well  as  at  Reichenberg  which  is  the  centre  of  the  textil< 
region.  Brewing  is  carried  on  at  Pilsen  and  in  other  districts] 
where  barley  and  hops  are  both  grown.  Bohemia  contains  over] 
half  the  spindles  of  the  whole  empire  (estimated  at  4,600, 000) ,i 
and  these  are  found  chiefly  in  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Elbe  in  the] 
north-east  of  the  country,  where  water-power  can  be  obtained 
from  the  Sudetic  mountains.  Reichenberg  is  engaged  in  spinning 
and  weaving  cotton  goods ;  woollens  are  also  manufactured  there, 
and  linens  at  Trautenau  and  Rumburg.  Glass  is  made  at  Haida  and 
Steinschonau  in  the  north  of  the  country,  where  quartz  can  be 
obtained  from  the  sandstone  and  fuel  from  the  forest.  Karlsbadj 
is  the  centre  of  the  porcelain  industry,  as  kaolin  is  found  in  the 
granitic  hills  in  the  neighbourhood.  Paper  mills  are  mostly 
situated  near  the  mountains,  where  water-power  is  available. 

Moravia. — ^The  greater  part  of  Moravia  falls  within  the  drainage 
area  of  the  March.  The  west  and  north-west  of  the  country  belong 
to  the  Bohemian  massif,  but  are  overlaid  in  many  places  by  recent 
alluvium.  To  the  east  of  this  region,  and  in  the  north  of  the  country, 
there  are  areas  of  Palaeozoic  rocks,  some  of  which  contain  iron 
and  others  coal.  In  the  south-east,  Moravia  has  a  lower  elevation 
and  consists  in  the  main  of  Tertiary  and  Quaternary  materials. 
On  the  Archaean  uplands  the  climate  is  similar  to  that  of  southern 
Bohemia,  and,  as  the  soil  is  poor,  potatoes  and  flax  are  the  chief 
crops  ;  but  in  the  south-east,  where  climatic  conditions  are  less 
forbidding  and  the  soil  more  fertile,  cereals,  especially  barley, 
and  sugar  beet  are  grown.  As  in  Bohemia,  considerable  care  is 
devoted  to  the  scientific  improvement  of  existing  breeds  of  cattle 
and  sheep. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Moravia  renders  it  one  of  the  industrial 
regions  of  the  empire.  Coal  and  lignite  are  both  obtained  in  a 
long  narrow  strip  of  country  running  north  and  south  to  the  west 
of  Briinn,  coal  at  Lesitz  and  Ratiskowitz,  and  lignite  at  Rossitz 
and  Oslawan.  The  chief  coal-producing  region  is,  however,  in  the 
north-east,  around  Witkowitz  and  Mahrisch-Ostrau,  where  the 
Silesian  coal  basin  of  Prussia  extends  into  Moravia.      Iron  ore  is 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY  139 

mined  at  Blansko,  Adamsthal,  Rossitz,  and  Stefanau,  in  the  Lower 
Palaeozoic  rocks  near  Briinn,  in  the  Carpathians  near  Witkowitz, 
and  at  Zoptau  in  the  north.  Iron  foundries  have  been  established 
at  Stefanau  and  Rossitz,  at  Witkowitz  and  at  Zoptau.  Agri- 
cultural and  industrial  machinery  is  manufactured  at  Briinn, 
Blansko,  and  Adamsthal.  The  textile  industries  are  situated  upon 
the  coalfields,  the  manufacture  of  hnen  being  carried  on  at  Mistek, 
and  that  of  cotton  at  Sternberg. 

Austrian  Silesia. — ^The  north-eastern  projection  of  Moravia 
cuts  into  two  parts  the  remnant  of  Austrian  Silesia,  which 
lies  to  the  north  of  the  Sudetes  and  Beskides.  Much  of 
the  land  is  traversed  by  spurs  of  these  mountains,  and 
is  relatively  infertile,  while  the  climate  is  somewhat  severe. 
The  chief  agricultural  products  are  cereals,  beet,  and  dairy 
produce ;  and  sugar  refining  and  brewing  are  important  industries. 
The  mineral  resources  of  the  country  are  considerable. 
The  coalfield  of  Prussian  Silesia  and  north-east  Moravia  extends 
into  Austrian  Silesia  around  Polnisch-Ostrau,  and,  as  iron  ore  is 
obtained  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Teschen,  not  far  off,  various 
metallurgical  works  have  been  established  in  the  eastern  section 
of  the  country.  The  western  section  is  the  seat  of  an  important 
linen  industry,  which  is  carried  on  at  Freiwaldau,  Freuden- 
thal,  and  Bennisch.  Woollen  goods  are  manufactured  at  Jagern- 
dorf  and  Engelsberg  in  the  west,  and  at  Bielitz  in  the  east,  and 
cotton  goods  at  Friedek.  Industrial  and  agricultural  machinery 
is  made  at  Troppau,  Jagerndorf,  Ustron,  and  Bielitz. 

The  Alpine  Countries  of  Austria. — This  region  includes 
Vorarlberg,  Tyrol,  Salzburg,  Styria,  Carinthia,  and  part  of 
Carniola.  The  central  range  of  the  Alps  becomes  lower 
towards  the  east,  while  the  limestone  ranges  are  more  developed 
both  on  the  north  and  on  the  south.  These  limestone  ranges 
are  separated  from  the  central  range  by  longitudinal  valleys, 
those  of  the  Inn  and  the  Enns  in  the  north,  and  those  of  the  Adige 
and  the  Drave  in  the  south;  and  it  is  in  these  valleys  that  the 
cultivated  land  is  generally  found.  From  the  climatic  point  of 
view,  the  whole  region  may  be  subdivided.  The  valleys  opening 
towards  the  south  have  warm  winters  like  those  of  Italy ;  those 
opening  to  the  east,  such  as  the  Drave  and  the  Save,  partake  of  the 
cold,  continental  winters  of  the  land  towards  which  they  look, 


1 40  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

while    the    northern    valleys    have    winters    which    occupy    an 
intermediate  position  between  the  two  previous  types. 

The  Eastern  Alps  differ  from  the  Western  in  being,  on  the  whole, 
more  productive.  The  land  which  is  absolutely  useless  does  not 
exceed  one-tenth  of  the  whole ;  over  four-tenths  is  covered  with 
forests,  and  much  of  the  remainder  is  suitable  for  grazing  purposes. 
The  climatic  conditions  of  the  valleys  are  reflected  in  their  products, 
In  those  opening  to  the  north  and  east  cereals  are  grown,  while  in 
those  opening  to  the  south  the  mulberry  and  the  vine  find  a 
favourable  environment. 

Its  mineral  resources  constitute  much  of  the  wealth  of  this  region. 
Gold  was  formerly  obtained  in  the  ancient  rocks  of  the  central 
range,  but  the  supplies  there  are  now  exhausted.  Iron  is  found 
at  various  places,  notably  at  Eisenerz,  in  the  valley  of  a  tributary 
of  the  Enns,  where  half  the  total  amount  of  ore  produced  in  th 
empire  is  obtained.  Iron  is  also  mined  at  Werfen  in  Salzburg, 
Saualpe  in  Carinthia,  and  elsewhere.  Lignite  occurs  in  several  J 
Alpine  valleys,  chiefly  in  St5rria,  where  it  is  worked  at  Leoben  and 
Koflach,  near  Voitsberg  and  Eibiswald,  and  around  Trifail  and 
Hrastnig.  The  principal  lead  mines  of  the  empire  are  at  Bleiberg 
and  Raibl  in  Carinthia,  while  copper  and  salt  are  both  obtained 
in  Salzburg,  and  mercury  comes  from  Idria  in  Camiola.  . 

The  manufactures  of  the  region  are  based  to  a  great  extent  upon  I 
its  mineral  wealth.  Among  other  places  where  iron  is  smelted, 
either  by  coke  or  by  charcoal,  are  Eisenerz,  Vordernberg,  and  Tro- 
faiach  in  Styria,  and  St.  Gertraud  and  St.  Leonhard  in  Carinthia. 
Both  provinces  are  engaged  in  the  construction  of  agricultural 
and  industrial  machinery,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  arms.  Styria 
is  noted  for  its  cutlery  and  tools,  and  Carinthia  for  its  lead  works. 
Leoben  in  the  former  province,  and  Klagenfurt  in  the  latter,  are 
important  industrial  towns. 

The  textile  industries  are  situated  chiefly  in  the  Vorarlberg  and 
in  the  Tyrol.  In  the  Vorarlberg,  the  manufacture  of  cotton  orig- 
inated in  the  example  set  by  Switzerland  and  in  the  presence  of 
abundant  supplies  of  water-power  ;  and,  as  electricity  is  now  used 
in  many  of  the  mills,  water-power  is  still  of  importance.  The 
centre  of  the  industry  is  at  Dornbirn.  There  are  also  cotton  mills 
in  the  north  of  the  Tyrol,  and  silk  is  manufactured  in  the  south  of 
that  province. 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY  141 

The  Danubian  Districts. — Between  the  Bohemian  massif  on 
the  north  and  the  Alpine  countries  on  the  south,  there  Hes  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Danube  a  flat,  or  gently  undulating,  land  which 
forms  part  of  the  provinces  of  Upper  and  Lower  Austria.  The 
soil,  which  is  derived  from  Tertiary  and  Quaternary  materials,  is 
generally  fertile,  and  agriculture  is  extensively  carried  on,  especi- 
ally in  Upper  Austria.  The  industrial  life  of  the  region  is  situated  in 
and  around  Vienna,  which  is  the  natural  meeting-place  of  lines  of 
communication  from  all  parts  of  the  Monarchy,  and  is  thus  able  to 
receive  both  the  mineral  products  of  the  western  regions  and  the 
agricultural  products  of  the  eastern.  Among  the  industries  which 
have  consequently  grown  up  in  the  city,  and  in  the  neighbouring 
towns  lying  chiefly  to  the  south  of  it,  where  water-power  is  abundant, 
are  the  manufacture  of  different  kinds  of  iron  and  steel  goods, 
spinning  and  weaving,  brewing  and  milling,  and  a  host  of  others. 
In  Upper  Austria  the  chief  industrial  town  is  Steyr,  on  the  Enns ; 
it  is  principally  engaged  in  metallurgical  work,  the  raw  material 
coming  from  the  Erzberg. 

The  Karst. — The  southern  folds  of  the  Eastern  Alps  curve  round 
towards  the  south-east,  and  form  a  region  to  which  the  title  of 
Karst,  originally  applied  to  a  more  limited  area,  has  been  extended. 
This  region  includes  parts  of  Carniola  and  Croatia,  the  most  of 
Istria,  Dalmatia,  and  Herzegovina,  and  the  west  of  Bosnia.  Its 
distinguishing  feature  is  the  Hmestone  of  which  it  is  almost  entirely 
composed.  This  hmestone  has  been  much  affected  by  water,  and  a 
great  part  of  the  drainage  is  now  underground,  so  that,  notwith- 
standing its  heavy  precipitation — frequently  over  60  inches — ^the 
country  suffers  severely  from  drought.  In  certain  places,  to  which 
the  name  of  polye  is  given,  the  water  comes  to  the  surface,  and,  the 
land  being  rendered  fertile  thereby,  cereals  can  be  grown.  On  the 
poorer  uplands  pastoral  pursuits  pievail,  and  sheep  and  goats  are 
raised  in  large  numbers.  The  vine  is  cultivated  on  the  richer  soils 
near  the  coast,  while  the  olive  thrives  on  the  poorer  land  in  the 
interior.  In  some  parts  of  Istria  the  mulberry  is  grown  and  the 
silkworm  reared.     Tobacco  is  one  of  the  chief  crops  of  Herzegovina. 

Manufactures  are,  on  the  whole,  unimportant,  but  Trieste,  which 
owes  its  growth  to  the  fact  that  it  is  the  great  Austrian  port,  has 
shipbuilding  yards,  oil,  jute,  and  soap  factories,  and  smelting 
works.     Fiume,  which  belongs  to  Hungary  and  is  the  port  of  that 


142  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

country,  has  been  vigorously  developed  by  the  government  and  ij 
now  an  important  centre,  with  manufactures  similar  to  those  oi 
Trieste. 

Bosnia,  with  the  exception  of  the  western  part,  which  falh 
within  the  Karst,  consists  of  Tertiary  sandstones  and  slates, 
with  some  areas  of  Palaeozoic  rocks.  Much  of  the  land  is  moun- 
tainous, and  forests  cover  half  the  entire  area  of  the  country.  Th< 
soil  in  the  lowlands  is  fertile,  and  cereals,  especially  maize,  anc 
olives,  vines,  mulberries,  and  figs  flourish,  but  the  most  character 
istic  product  of  the  country  is  the  plum,  which  is  converted  into 
a  kind  of  brandy,  called  slivovica.  In  some  of  the  mountains 
iron  is  found,  and  in  the  river  valleys,  coal.  Notwithstanding  the 
care  devoted  by  the  Austrian  Government  in  recent  years  to  th< 
development  of  railways  and  highways,  the  country  is  still  in  a 
backward  condition,  and  manufactures  and  industry  are  of  little 
importance. 

The  Carpathian  Lands  of  Austria. — Galicia  and  Bukovina  lit 
on  the  outer  slope  of  the  Carpathian  curve,  and  consist  in  part  oi 
the  sandstone  ridges  of  the  Carpathian  mountains,  and  in  part  oi 
the  lowlands  which  lie  beyond  and  belong  physically  to  the  plains  oi 
Russia.  The  climate  is  accordingly  more  continental  in  character 
than  in  other  parts  of  Austria  ;  and  the  sununers  are  hot  and  the 
winters  long  and  severe. 

In  the  uplands  large  tracts  are  still  covered  by  forests,  but 
in  the  lowlands  the  soil  is  generally  fertile,  and  agriculture  is  exten- 
sively carried  on,  though  by  somewhat  primitive  methods.  Cereals, 
leguminous  plants,  potatoes,  and  beet  are  all  grown.  There  is 
considerable  mineral  wealth.  Petroleum  occurs  in  the  sedimentary 
rocks  of  the  Carpathian  range,  and  is  bored  for  at  Boryslaw  and 
elsewhere.  Some  of  the  richest  petroleum  fields  in  Europe  are  in 
this  region,  but  they  are  as  yet  only  partially  known,  and  during  the 
last  five  years  have  yielded  on  an  average  less  than  3  per  cent,  oi 
the  world's  total  output.  Salt  is  found  along  the  whole  length  o< 
the  Carpathian  curve,  but  the  principal  mines  are  at  WieUczka.  In 
the  west,  a  small  part  of  the  Silesian  coalfield  lies  in  Galicia,  and 
coal  is  mined  in  the  Cracow  district. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  Galicia  and  Bukovina  cover 
three-tenths  of  the  land  occupied  by  the  Austrian  Crown  (which, 
of  course,  does  not  include  Hungary),  and  that  the  density  of  their 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY  143 

population  is  a  little  above  the  average  for  the  same  area,  manu- 
factures are  but  slightly  developed.  The  bulk  of  the  people 
are  devoted  to  agricultural  pursuits,  and  such  industries  as  there 
are  consist  mainly  in  the  preparation  for  export  of  the  raw  materials 
produced  within  the  country.  There  are  distilleries  (brandy  being 
made  from  potatoes),  sugar  refineries,  saw  mills,  flour  mills,  and  a 
few  other  industries  of  a  similar  nature. 


HUNGARY 

Two  great  physical  t5^es — mountains  and  plains — are  represented 
in  the  structure  of  Hungary.  Of  the  former  the  most  important 
are  the  Carpathians,  which  begin  at  the  Danube,  opposite  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  Alps,  and  extend  in  a  great  curve  running  north- 
east, east,  south-east,  and  finally  west,  to  the  Iron  Gates  at  Orsova. 
In  some  respects  these  mountains  may  be  regarded  as  a  continuation 
of  the  Alps,  but  it  is  only  the  sandstone  ranges  which  are  continu- 
ously developed  throughout,  and  these  do  not  rise  to  anything  like 
the  same  height  as  the  Central  Alps.  In  places  there  are  fragments 
of  an  older  mountain  system  which  was  partly  destroyed  by  the 
foundering  of  the  region  now  occupied  by  the  plains.  Its  remains 
are  found  in  the  north,  where  the  Tatra  is  formed  of  granitic 
rock,  and  in  Transylvania,  where  ancient  rocks  appear  on  the  outer, 
and  more  especially  on  the  inner  side  of  the  Carpathian  curve. 
On  the  inner  side  of  the  curve,  also,  the  line  of  fracture  between 
the  ancient  rocks  and  the  plains  is  marked  by  the  appearance  of 
volcanic  outpourings.  The  last  efforts  of  the  Alps  themselves 
may  be  distinguished  in  the  south-west  of  the  country,  in  the 
Bakony  Forest,  and  in  the  hills  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia. 

The  plains  represent  an  area  of  subsidence  filled  up  by  deposits 
in  the  Miocene  Sea  which  formerly  covered  the  region,  and  which,  as 
it  disappeared,  left  great  beds  of  salt  among  the  clays  and  sands 
upon  its  floor.  The  Little  Plain,  which  has  an  area  of  5,000  square 
miles,  is  cut  off  from  the  remainder  of  the  Lowlands  by  the  Bakony 
Forest  and  the  southern  spurs  of  the  Carpathians,  and  generally 
consists  of  fertile  soil.  The  Great  Plain,  which  is  known  as  the 
Alfold,  has  an  area  of  about  37,000  square  miles,  and  contains  wide 
areas  of  loess  deposited  during  great  dust  storms.  Elsewhere, 
especially  between  the  Theiss  and  the  Danube,  there  are  long  rows 


144  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

of  sand  dunes  which  frequently  interrupt  the  drainage  of  the  land 
In  places,  also,  are  still  to  be  found  remains  of  the  ancient  sea 
deep  hollows  impregnated  with  salt — as  at  Ecsed,  by  the  side  of  tb 
Kraszna,  and  at  Sarret,  along  the  course  of  the  Koros. 

The  climate  of  Hungary  is  essentially  continental  in  its  mai 
characteristics,  even  although  the  great  plains  are  to  some  exten 
protected  by  the  Carpathians  from  cold  northerly  winds.     In  th 
highlands  of  the  north  and  east,  the  winters,  which  are  very  severe, 
last  for  about  six  months,  and  even  in  the  plains  the  mean  tempera- 
ture is  below  freezing-point  during  the  coldest  season.     On   th 
other  hand,  the  summers  of  the  lowlands  are  hot,  and  in  the  sout 
are  little  short  of  tropical.     In  Transylvania  the  winters  are  col 
and  the  summers  warm.    The  mean  rainfall  ranges  from  20  to 
inches  on  the  plains  to  over  40  inches  on  the  mountains ;   but  it: 
irregularity  from  year  to  year  is  a  source^of  much  trouble  to  th 
agriculturists  of  the  Alfold.     In  some  years  the  drought  is 
great  that  all  vegetation  is  burned  up,  while  in  others  large  are; 
are  inundated  by  floods.    The  years  of  maximum  precipitation  hav 
an  amount  five  or  six  times  as  great  as  the  years  of  minimu 
precipitation. 

The  vegetation  of  the  mountains  presents  a  complete  contras 
to  that  of  the  plains.  The  former,  with  their  heavy  rainfall,  ar 
covered  with  coniferous  and  deciduous  trees,  oaks,  beeches,  an 
pines  being  predominant,  while  the  latter,  with  their  steppe  climate 
have  also  a  steppe  vegetation.  Grasses  cover  the  land  in  the  earl 
summer,  but  are  burned  up  before  it  closes,  and  there  are  few] 
trees  except  in  places  where  their  growth  has  been  patiently  fostere 
by  man. 

The  Carpathian  Region. — ^The  Carpathians  are  of  considerabl 
economic  importance.  The  sandstone  ridges,  of  which  they  mainly 
consist,  are  peculiarly  favourable  to  the  growth  of  trees,  and,  as 
scientific  methods  of  forestry  are  encouraged  by  the  State,  Hungary 
is  able  to  export  large  quantities  of  timber.  The  vine  finds  a 
favourable  environment  within  the  Carpathian  curve,  the  most 
renowned  wines  being  those  which  are  produced  in  the  Tokay  district 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Theiss.  Hungarian  vineyards,  like  French 
suffered  severely  from  the  ravages  of  the  phylloxera,  but  the  disease 
has  been  overcome  by  grafting  the  shoots  of  the  native  vine  upon 
stumps  of  American  origin.     In  many  places  the  Carpathians  are 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY  145 

capable  of  cultivation,  and  considerable  areas  are  cropped  with 
cereals,  but  the  yield  per  acre  is  generally  low. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Hungary  is  chiefly  centred  within  the 
Carpathian  region,  and,  with  the  exception  of  coal  and  iron,  occurs 
more  especially  in  those  districts  where  volcanic  material  is 
associated  with  the  older  sedimentary  rocks,  that  is,  in  the  north 
and  in  Transylvania.  The  precious  metals  do  not  form  so  large  a 
proportion  of  the  product  as  formerly.  Gold,  the  annual 
output  of  which  is  increasing,  is  chiefly  obtained  in  Transylvania. 
Silver,  lead,  and  copper  usually  occur  together,  but  the  yield  of 
silver,  which  is  mined  mainly  at  Selmeczbanya,  is  decreasing. 
The  production  of  iron,  on  the  other  hand,  is  becoming  more  im- 
portant. The  principal  deposits  are  embedded  in  the  older  rocks 
of  the  Transylvanian  mountains,  in  the  valley  of  the  Csema,  a  tri- 
butary of  the  Maros,  and  in  the  Gomor  and  adjacent  districts  to 
the  south-east  of  the  Tatra.  The  manufacture  of  pig-iron  is 
not  advancing  at  the  same  rate  as  the  production  of  iron  ore, 
and  every  year  increasing  quantities  of  the  latter  are  sent  to  Silesia 
to  be  smelted  there. 

The  most  important  coal  mines  of  the  country  are  also  situated 
within  the  mountain  area,  where  they  occur  in  most  geological 
formations  from  the  Carboniferous  to  the  Tertiary.  True  coal  is 
limited  in  quantity,  and  is  found  mainly  in  the  south-western  part 
of  Transylvania,  and,  as  may  be  noted  here,  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  some  outliers  of  the  Alps  in  western  Hungary.  Lignite  is  much 
more  widespread,  but  the  principal  deposits  are  situated  in  the 
north  and  east  of  the  Carpathian  range.  As  a  result  of  the  industrial 
development  of  the  country,  the  production  of  coal  has  increased 
very  greatly  within  recent  years,  but  it  is  still  insufficient  to  meet 
the  home  demand. 

The  Plains  constitute  the  great  agricultural  region  of  Hungary, 
and  over  two-thirds  of  their  area  is  now  devoted  to  arable  farming. 
Wheat,  which  is  the  most  important  crop,  is  cultivated  mainly  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  Alfold,  but  is  also  grown  in  the  north 
about  the  Carpathian  foothills,  and  in  parts  of  the  country  between 
the  Danube  and  the  Theiss.  In  the  Plains  the  average  jdeld  is 
from  20  to  22  bushels  per  acre,  and  in  the  whole  of  Hungary  18 
bushels ;  but,  in  obtaining  the  latter  figure,  considerable  areas 
of  relatively  unproductive  soil  in  the  upland  districts  are  included. 

10 — (1326) 


146  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

As  a  result  of  the  climatic  conditions  under  which  it  is  grown, 
Hungarian  wheat  is  hard  and  especially  valuable  for  milling 
purposes.  Maize  ranks  next  in  importance  to  wheat,  and  in  some 
parts  of  Transylvania  it  occupies  about  one-half  of  the  arable  land, 
though  on  the  plains  the  proportion  is  generally  lower.  Hungary  is 
the  chief  maize-producing  country  in  Europe,  but  the  amount 
grown  there  is  much  less  than  in  the  United  States.  The  greater 
part  of  the  crop  is  devoted  to  feeding  stock. 

The  production  of  rye  is  declining  before  the  advance  of  wheat, 
and  it  is  now  cultivated  mainly  on  the  sandy  soils  in  the  west,  and 
in  some  parts  of  the  north  of  the  country,  as  well  as  in  some  of  the 
Carpathian  districts.  Barley  and  oats  are  grown  in  the  uplands, 
and  to  a  less  extent  in  the  lowlands.  The  area  under  beet  has  been 
widely  extended  within  recent  years,  and  sugar  is  manufactured 
in  increasing  quantities.  Of  other  industrial  plants,  tobacco,  flax, 
hemp,  and  hops  are  the  most  important. 

In  early  times  cattle-breeding  was  probably  the  chief  pursuit 
of  the  Hungarian  people,  and  it  still  holds  an  important  place  in 
the  agricultural  economy  of  the  country,  though  its  character 
has  almost  entirely  changed.  The  natural  pasture  lands,  over 
which  the  cattle  formerly  roamed,  are  rapidly  decreasing  in  extent, 
while  the  area  under  fodder  plants  is  largely  on  the  increase.  At 
the  same  time,  scientific  methods  of  breeding  stock  have  been 
introduced,  and  the  dairying  industry  is  of  growing  importance. 

Agriculture,  which  affords  employment  to  over  two-thirds  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Hungary,  has  made  great  progress  within  recent 
years,  and  in  this  progress  the  State  has  played  a  prominent  part. 
Agricultural  schools  and  experimental  farms  have  been  established 
in  many  parts  of  the  country.  Government  help  has  been  given 
to  co-operative  societies,  more  especially  to  those  connected  with 
the  sale  of  agricultural  produce.  Colonies,  in  regions  hitherto 
uncultivated,  have  been  established,  and  the  margin  of  cultivation 
has  been  steadily  pushed  forward.  The  practice  of  husbandry 
has  also  advanced.  The  rotation  of  crops  is  now  common  over  a 
great  part  of  the  country  instead  of  the  old  three-field  system, 
which  still,  it  is  true,  survives  in  places ;  and  the  proportion  of  land 
which  lies  fallow  every  year  has  been  gradually  reduced.  On  the 
other  hand,  nearly  one-half  of  the  agricultural  area  consists  of  small 
farms  of  from  5  to  100  acres,  the  holders  of  which  do  not  yet  seem 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY  147 

to  have  adapted  themselves  with  much  success  to  intensive  methods 
of  cultivation,  as  far,  at  least,  as  the  production  of  wheat  is  concerned ; 
while  the  large  estates  of  over  1,000  acres,  which  occupy  one- third 
of  the  agricultural  domain,  frequently  suffer  at  certain  times 
of  the  year  from  a  scarcity  of  labour.  The  medium-sized  farms 
are,  unfortunately,  disappearing,  some  being  divided  into  smeJl 
holdings,  and  others  being  absorbed  by  large  estates. 

Manufacturing  industry  was  for  long  confined  to  supplying 
the  more  immediate  wants  of  the  people.  With  the  great  develop- 
ment of  industry  in  Austria  after  1866,  it  became  evident  that, 
if  Hungary  were  not  to  become  economically  dependent  upon 
her  more  powerful  neighbour  to  a  greater  extent  than  was  poli- 
tically expedient,  it  would  be  necessary  for  the  State  to  encourage 
the  development  of  native  manufactures.  This  encouragement 
took  the  form  of  freeing  from  taxation  for  a  number  of  years 
certain  groups  of  industries.  The  law  of  1907,  for  example,  provides 
that  for  fifteen  years  new  industrial  enterprises  manufacturing 
goods  not  hitherto  manufactured  in  Hungary,  or  only  manufactured 
in  insufficient  quantities,  are  to  be  exempted  from  a  variety  of  taxes 
and  tolls  ;  it  also  provides  that  desirable  enterprises  may  be  sub- 
sidised by  the  State.  It  is  yet  too  early  to  estimate  the  beneficial 
effects  of  this  policy,  but  it  has  undoubtedly  been  of  value. 

The  most  important  industry  of  the  Plains  at  the  present  time 
is  fiour-miUing,  which  has  its  centre  at  Budapest,  and  is  based  upon 
the  large  wheat  production  of  the  country.  Sugar  is  manufactured 
mainly  in  the  districts  in  which  the  sugar-beet  is  grown.  Among 
other  industries,  carried  on  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  are  distilling 
and  brewing,  the  manufacture  of  pottery  and  glass,  the  preparation 
of  tobacco,  and  different  branches  of  the  chemical  industry.  The 
manufacture  of  textiles  is  still  in  an  undeveloped  condition. 

Croatia-Slavonia  is  mountainous  in  the  west,  lowland  in  the 
east.  The  greater  part  of  the  mountainous  region  falls  within 
the  Karst  country,  which  has  already  been  described  ;  but  in  the 
north,  the  uplands  are  somewhat  more  fertile.  In  the  lowlands, 
where  climatic  conditions  and  soil  are  similar  to  those  of  the  plains 
of  Hungary,  cereals,  especially  maize,  are  grown.  The  vine- 
yards, which  are  numerous,  suffered  severely  from  the  phylloxera, 
as  elsewhere,  but  are  beginning  to  recover.  Plums  are  grown  every- 
where, and  are  either  distilled  for  brandy  or  dried  for  prunes. 


148  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

Horse-breeding,  pig-raising,  and  bee-keeping  are  all  important 
pursuits.  These  varied  occupations  give  employment  to  the  mass 
of  the  people,  but  agricultural  methods,  although  they  have  made 
considerable  progress  within  recent  years,  are  still  somewhat  back- 
ward, and  the  land  does  not  5deld  what  it  might  under  more 
favourable  conditions. 

The  manufactures  which  exist  are  chiefly  concerned  with  working 
up  the  agricultural  produce  of  the  country ;  distilleries  and  breweries, 
flour  mills,  and  silk  and  tobacco  factories  are  widely  distributed. 
Agram,  Esseg,  and  Semlin  are  among  the  most  important  industrial 
towns. 

Communications. — ^The  navigable  waterways  of  Austria-Hungary 
belong  mainly  to  the  Danubian  system.  The  Danube  itself, 
since  its  course  has  been  regularised  and  the  obstructions  at  the  Iron 
Gates  removed,  is  the  most  frequented  of  these  waterways,  but 
its  importance  is  lessened  by  the  fact  that  it  leads,  not  directly 
to  the  open  ocean,  but  to  a  sea  of  relatively  little  commercial 
importance.  As  there  is  considerable  trade,  however,  between  the 
industrial  regions  of  Austria  and  the  agricultural  regions  of  Hungary, 
the  river  is  much  used  by  both  countries.  Of  its  tributaries,  the 
Drave  and  the  Save  open  up  routes  from  the  Danube  to  the  Adriatic, 
and  Esseg  on  the  former  and  Sissek  on  the  latter  are  large  river 
ports.  The  Theiss,  having  been  canalised  in  places  and  brought 
under  a  certain  amount  of  control,  is  navigable  for  the  greater 
part  of  its  course.  The  rivers  of  the  Alpine  region  are  floatable 
rather  than  navigable,  but  considerable  quantities  of  wood  are 
brought  to  the  lowlands  by  them.  The  Moldau-Elbe  is  the  great 
waterway  of  Bohemia,  and  is  of  special  value  for  trade  with  Germany. 
At  present  it  is  only  open  to  steamboats  as  far  as  Melnik,  but  the 
improvement  of  the  Moldau  to  permit  steam  navigation  as  far  as 
Prague  is  being  rapidly  pushed  forward.  Among  other  schemes 
under  consideration  for  improving  the  Austrian  waterways  are 
projects  for  connecting  the  Danube  with  the  Elbe,  the  Oder,  and  the 
Vistula  by  a  series  of  canals. 

Austria  has  14,000  miles  of  railway,  and  Hungary  13,000,  and 
their  respective  capitals  are  the  two  most  important  railway  centres 
in  Austria-Hungary.  The  Orient  Express  route  traverses  the 
Monarchy  from  Linz  to  SemHn,  following  in  general  the  course  of 
the  Danube  and  passing  through  Vienna,  Pressburg,  Budapest, 


AUSTRIA-HUNGARY  149 

and  Peterwardein.  From  Vienna  a  line  runs  to  Prague,  which  is 
the  meeting  place  of  routes  from  Southern  Germany  by  the  Gate 
of  Furth,  from  Central  Germany  by  the  passes  round  the  Fichtel- 
gebirge,  and  from  Northern  Germany  by  the  valley  of  the  Elbe 
between  the  Erzgebirge  and  the  Riesengebirge.  Another  line  from 
Vienna  follows  the  course  of  the  March,  and,  after  entering  the 
valley  of  the  Oder,  passes  through  the  Moravian  Gate  between 
the  Sudetes  and  the  Carpathians;  it  then  goes,  by  Cracow  and 
Lemberg,  through  Galicia  and  Bukovina,  finally  terminating  at 
Odessa.  The  most  important  route  from  Vienna  to  the  Adriatic 
runs  south-west  from  the  Austrian  capital,  crosses  the  Semmering 
pass,  follows  the  Miirz-thal  to  Bruck,  then  the  Mur-thal  to  Unzmarkt, 
passes  into  the  valley  of  the  Drave  near  Villach,  and,  after  tunnelHng 
through  the  Karawanken  and  Julian  Alps,  descends  the  Isonzo 
to  Trieste.  Two  important  railways  follow  the  longitudinal  valleys 
of  the  Alps — one,  branching  off  near  Bruck  from  the  Semmering 
route,  utilises  the  valleys  of  the  Enns,  the  Salzach,  and  the  Inn, 
and  some  of  their  tributaries  to  reach  Innsbruck,  and,  after  passing 
through  the  Arlberg  in  a  tunnel  over  six  miles  in  length,  arrives  in 
Switzerland ;  the  other  runs  from  Villach  along  the  Drave-thal 
and  the  Puster-thal,  and  joins  the  route  from  Innsbruck  to  Verona 
by  way  of  the  Wipp-thal,  the  Brenner  pass,  and  the  valleys  of  the 
Eisak  and  the  Etsch.  These  two  longitudinal  lines  have  now 
been  joined  by  a  railway  which  passes  by  a  tunnel  over  five  miles 
long  through  the  Hohe  Tauern,  and  forms  part  of  the  shortest 
route  from  Salzburg  and  south-west  Germany  to  Trieste. 

The  development  of  Hungarian  railways  is  largely  the  result  of 
the  national  policy  pursued  in  recent  years  by  the  Hungarian 
Government,  and  the  country  has  now,  on  the  whole,  a  fairly  good 
network  of  communications.  The  zone  system  is,  however,  in 
operation,  and  is  for  political  purposes  worked  in  favour  of  direct 
communication  with  Budapest,  so  that,  while  radial  movement  is 
easy,  cross-country  traffic  frequently  finds  many  obstacles  placed 
in  its  way. 

Among  the  more  important  lines  from  Budapest  are  those  which 
cross  the  Carpathians  to  Cracow,  Lemberg,  and  Bukarest ;  and  the 
Karst  to  Fiume.  Budapest  also  has  direct  communication  by 
Sarajevo  with  Uvac  on  the  frontier  of  Bosnia  and  Novi-Bazar, 
and  Vienna  will  be  similarly  connected  when  the  line  from  Agram 


150  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

to  Sarajevo  is  completed.  It  is  proposed  to  continue  the  railway 
from  Uvac  through  Novi-Bazar  to  Mitrovica  and  thus  open  up  a 
new  route  to  Saloniki  and  Constantinople. 

Commerce. — For  the  five  years,  1906-10,  the  value  of  the  goods 
imported  for  consumption  in  the  monarchy  averaged  £107,000,000. 
For  the  same  period  the  average  value  of  the  exports  from  the 
country  itself  was  £98,000,000.  Among  the  chief  imports  are 
cotton  from  the  United  States,  India,  and  Egjrpt,  wool  from  different 
parts  of  the  world,  coal  partly  from  Great  Britain  but  mainly  from^ 
Germany,  cotton  yarn  from  Great  Britain,  and  machinery  largely 
from  Germany.  Of  the  exports,  sugar  and  eggs  are  sent  in  large 
quantities  to  the  United  Kingdom,  hgnite  and  oil  find  their  chief 
foreign  markets  in  Germany,  cattle  go  to  Germany  and  Italy,  and 
wood  to  Italy  and  the  Mediterranean  countries.  Hungarian  wheat 
is  consumed  largely  in  Austria,  but  some  is  sent  to  Great  Britain 
Austria-Hungary  now  imports  more  wheat  than  she  exports. 

In  the  foreign  trade  of  Austria- Hungary  Germany  holds  the  first 
place,  both  with  regard  to  exports  and  imports,  as  she  takes 
over  two-fifths  of  the  former,  and  supplies  nearly  two-fifths  oi 
the  latter.  The  United  States  and  the  United  Kingdom  rank 
second  and  third  as  importers,  and  the  United  Kingdom  anc 
Italy  as  exporters. 

The  chief  ports  are  Trieste  and  Fiume,  but  their  trade  is  princi 
pally  with  the  Levant  and  the  East,  and  a  great  part  of  the  over- 
seas commerce  of  Austria-Hungary  is  transacted  through  Germai 
ports.  American  cotton,  for  example,  is  imported  through  Bremen 
while  sugar  for  the  United  Kingdom  is  dispatched  through  Hamburg. 


CHAPTER    XIV 

ROUMANIA 1 

In  Roumania,  several  distinct  physical  regions  may  be  recognised. 
The  outer  slopes  of  the  great  south-eastern  curve  of  the  Carpathians 
lie  within  the  country,  and  fall  away  to  a  belt  of  foothills  which 
gradually  broadens  out  as  it  approaches  the  Danube.  To  the  east 
of  this  belt,  in  the  northern  part  of  the  country,  Ues  the  plateau  of 
Moldavia,  which  has  an  average  height  of  about  900  feet,  and  is 
bounded  by  the  Sereth  and  the  Moldau  on  the  west,  and  by  the 
Pruth  on  the  east ;  while  in  the  south,  between  the  foothills  and 
the  Danube,  stretches  the  great  Wallachian  plain,  which  is  almost 
everywhere  perfectly  level.  Beyond  the  Danube,  and  bordered  by 
it  on  the  west  and  north,  lies  the  Dobrudja,  which  is  hilly  in  the 
north,  marshy  in  the  east,  and  a  plateau  in  the  south.  Part  of  the 
foothills,  and  most  of  the  Moldavian  plateau  and  the  Wallachian 
plain,  are  covered  with  deposits  of  loess,  to  which  additional  fertility 
seems  to  have  been  imparted,  as  in  the  black  soils  of  Russia,  by  the 
secular  decay  of  steppe  vegetation.  The  climate  is,  on  the  whole, 
continental  in  character,  and  the  summers  are  very  hot,  while 
the  winters  are  cold.    The  annual  precipitation  is  about  20  inches. 

The  Carpathians  are  forest-clad  to  a  height  of  over  5,000  feet. 
On  the  lower  slopes  the  beech  is  the  prevailing  tree  ;  but,  further 
up,  it  gives  place  to  coniferous  trees,  such  as  the  fir  and  the 
spruce.  Minerals  are  probably  to  be  found  within  the  region,  but, 
so  far,  little  has  been  done  to  exploit  them. 

The  Foothills  contain  considerable  areas  of  forest  where  the 
principal  trees  are  the  oak,  the  beech,  the  plane,  and  the  ash.  The 
loess-covered  districts  are  generally  cultivated,  and  produce  large 
crops  of  maize,  which  is  the  staple  food  of  the  Roumanian  people. 
Fruits,  such  as  grapes  and  prunes,  are  also  extensively  grown. 

In  the  Tertiary  rocks  of  the  region,  especially  in  the  south-east, 
there  are  large  deposits  of  petroleum  and  salt.  The  output  of 
the  first  of  these,  which  is  obtained  mainly  in  the  vicinity  of 
Prahova,  has  greatly  increased  within  recent  years,  and  now 
amounts  to  over  3  per  cent,  of  the  world's  supply.    From  the 

1  See  note  on  page  161. 

151 


152  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

residuum  left  after  distillation,  a  valuable  fuel  is  obtained  for  use 
on  the  railways.     Coal  of  a  lignitic  character  is  found  in  the  south. 

There  are  few  manufactures  in  this  region.  The  timber  industry- 
is  of  some  importance,  as  the  mountain  streams  provide  power, 
and  the  means  by  which  sawn  timber  can  be  floated  down  to  the 
plains.  Glass  is  also  manufactured,  as  fuel  and  carbonate  of 
potassium  from  wood-ash  can  both  be  easily  obtained. 

The  Moldavian  Plateau. — Rather  less  than  one-half  of  this 
region  is  devoted  to  agriculture,  the  principal  crops  being  maize 
and  wheat.  Oats  and  forage  plants  are  also  grown,  and  consider- 
able areas  are  devoted  to  pastoral  pursuits.  As  there  are  large 
mixed  forests  in  places,  the  timber  and  glass  industries  are  carried 
on  as  in  the  previous  region.  Jassy,  the  capital,  and  Botosani  in 
the  extreme  north,  are  the  chief  towns. 

The  Wallachian  Plain,  except  in  the  north  where  oak-woods 
are  found,  is  a  true  steppe-land.  Much  of  it  is  now  devoted  to 
agricidture,  and  it  is  the  chief  wheat-producing  region  in  the 
country,  more  than  half  of  the  total  acreage  under  that  cereal 
being  found  within  it.  Maize  comes  next  in  importance,  and 
covers  considerable  areas.  With  the  progress  of  agriculture,  stock- 
raising  has  declined  in  importance,  but  large  numbers  of  horses 
are  still  reared.  The  region,  which  is  the  most  densely  populated 
in  the  country,  contains  several  important  towns,  including  Buka- 
rest,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom,  situated  in  the  middle  of  the 
plain  ;  Craiova,  the  chief  town  in  the  west ;  and  Galatz  and  Braila, 
both  grain-exporting  cities,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube.  In 
each  of  these  there  are  numerous  small  manufacturing  establishments. 

The  Dobrudja  does  not  offer  much  fertile  soil,  and  agriculture 
is  mainly  confined  to  the  plateau  in  the  south,  where  oats  and 
barley  are  grown.  Flax  is  also  cultivated  and  large  numbers  of 
horses  are  reared.  Constanta  is  the  chief  port  of  Roumania  on 
the  Black  Sea. 

General  Considerations. — It  is  obvious  from  the  above 
survey  that  the  great  majority  of  the  Roumanian  people  depend 
upon  agriculture  for  their  livelihood.  Over  40  per  cent,  of  the 
land  is  cultivated,  and  of  that  about  42  per  cent,  is  in  the  hands 
of  1,000,000  smallholders,  each  of  whom  owns  less  than  25  acres ; 
while  38  per  cent,  belongs  to  1,600  large  proprietors,  who  each 
possess  more  than  1,000  acres.     The  smallholders  suffer  from  the 


ROUMANIA  153 

fact  that,  under  the  methods  of  extensive  farming  which  still 
prevail,  their  farms  do  not  yield  sufficient  to  maintain  them  in 
those  years  when,  owing  to  drought  or  other  causes,  the  crops 
are  below  the  average.  On  the  large  farms,  on  the  other  hand, 
more  modern  methods  of  husbandry  have  generally  been  adopted, 
and  the  yield  per  acre  is,  as  a  rule,  above  the  average  for  the 
whole  country. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE   BALKAN   STATES^ 

The  topographical  features  of  the  region  which  is  known  as  the 
Balkan  Peninsula  are  very  irregular.  On  the  west,  the  Dinaric 
Mountains,  which  are  formed  by  a  continuation  of  the  Alpine  fold, 
run  from  the  Austrian  lands  on  the  Adriatic,  south-east  and 
south  through  Montenegro  and  Albania  into  Greece.  These  moun- 
tains, which  consist  of  numerous  parallel  ranges,  are  formed  of 
limestone,  which  has  in  places,  and  especially  in  Greece,  been 
affected  by  metamorphic  action.  Their  average  height  is  over 
4,000  feet,  and  they  present  considerable  barriers  to  communica- 
tion, as  they  have  been  deeply  cut  into  by  rivers,  which  generally 
follow  the  direction  of  the  folds.  In  the  north-east  of  the 
Peninsula  are  the  Balkan  Mountains,  which  continue  the  fold  lines 
of  the  Carpathians.  From  the  Danube,  they  strike  southwards, 
with  an  average  height  of  1,000  feet,  and  then  curve  round  towards 
the  east,  where,  for  a  considerable  distance,  they  run  with  an 
average  height  of  5,000  to  6,000  feet.  In  the  first  part  of 
their  course  they  consist  of  crystalline  rock,  but  further  east 
they  appear  to  be  mainly  sedimentary.  Between  the  Dinaric 
range  and  the  Balkans  lies  the  ancient  crystalline  mass  of  the 
Thraco-Macedonian  region,  the  topography  of  which  is  very 
irregular.  It  contains  high  mountain  masses  like  the  Shardagh 
and  the  Rhodope,  open  highlands  like  those  of  Old  Servia  and 
Macedonia,  enclosed  lake  basins  like  Monastir,  river  valleys  like 
those  of  the  Vardar  and  the  Struma,  and  large  plains  like  Thessaly 
and  Thrace.  The  rivers  can  best  be  spoken  of  in  connection  with 
communications  in  determining  the  main  lines  of  which  they  play 
an  important  part. 

Bulgaria 

Bulgaria  has  an  area  of  33,600  square  miles,  and  a  population 
estimated,  in  1910,  at  4,337,000.  The  Balkan  range  divides  the 
country  into  two  parts.  To  the  north  of  it  hes  the  Bulgarian 
plateau,  which  is  built  up  of  Secondary  material — sandstones  and 
Hmestones  overlaid  in  places  by  loess — and  is  deeply  dissected  by 

^  See  note  to  page  16 1 . 

154  W 


THE  BALKAN   STATES  155 

the  rivers  which  flow  northwards  from  the  mountains  to  the  Danube ; 
while  to  the  south  there  is  the  region  of  Eastern  RoumeHa,  which 
is  more  irregular  in  form,  and  contains  much  fertile  soil  in  the 
valleys  which  separate  the  Balkans  from  the  Anti-Balkans,  and 
both  from  the  Rilo-Rhodope  section  of  the  Thraco-Macedonian 
massif.  Climatic  conditions  differ  in  these  two  divisions  of  the  country, 
but  in  both  are  more  or  less  continental.  To  the  south  of  the 
Balkans  the  region  is  more  sheltered  than  in  the  north,  and  the 
temperature  is  higher,  especially  in  the  winter  months.  The 
rainfall  generally  varies  between  20  and  30  inches. 

Agriculture  is  the  chief  pursuit  of  the  inhabitants.  About 
36  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  of  the  country  is  cultivated  (including 
meadow  land  which  amounts  to  about  4  per  cent,  of  the  total  cul- 
tivated area),  over  10  per  cent,  is  pasture  land,  and  nearly  30  per 
cent,  forest  land.  About  40  per  cent,  of  the  land  is  held  as  private 
property  and  about  24  per  cent,  as  parish  property  (or,  altogether, 
about  84  per  cent,  of  the  area  which  can  be  utilised).  The  bulk 
of  the  holdings,  which  are  in  the  hands  of  their  owners,  are  of 
less  than  100  acres  in  extent.  Of  the  land  which  is  cultivated, 
about  three-fourths  is  devoted  to  cereals,  wheat  3delding  the  largest 
crop,  and  maize  and  barley  occupying  the  second  and  third  places 
respectively.  Rice  is  confined  to  the  south.  The  principal  in- 
dustrial plants  are  tobacco,  roses,  and  beetroot.  Tobacco  is  grown 
mainly  in  the  south,  and  is  used  chiefly  for  home  consumption  ;  roses, 
which  are  cultivated  entirely  for  the  manufacture  of  attar  of  roses, 
are  found  exclusively  in  the  provinces  of  PhilippopoHs  and  Stara- 
Zagora  in  Eastern  Roumelia ;  beetroot  is  chiefly  cultivated  near 
Sofia.  Cattle  and  sheep  are  raised  in  considerable  numbers,  and 
forage  ranks  next  in  importance  to  cereals ;  some  attention  is 
also  now  being  paid  to  the  improvement  of  stock.  The  forest  lands 
are  of  considerable  importance.  In  the  lowlands,  and  on  the  lower 
slopes  of  the  hills,  the  principal  trees  are  oaks ;  above  these,  to  a 
height  of  about  4,000  feet,  is  a  belt  where  the  beech  flourishes,  as 
well  as  the  ash  and  the  plane ;  the  higher  parts  of  the  hills  are 
covered  with  pine  and  spruce.  The  parishes  own  over  one-half 
of  the  forest  lands,  chiefly  on  the  lower  hill  slopes  in  the  west  and 
south  of  the  country;  and  one-third,  mainly  in  the  mountainous 
districts,  is  in  the  hands  of  the  State,  while  the  remainder  is 
scattered  over  the  lowlands,  and  belongs  to  private  individuals. 


156  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

Within  recent  years,  attempts  have  been  made  to  improve  the 
economy  of  the  forests.  The  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  is  as 
yet  but  little  known,  and,  though  numerous  concessions  for  the 
working  of  various  minerals  have  been  granted,  hgnite  from  a 
State-owned  mine,  16  miles  south-east  of  Pernik,  is  the  most 
important  product  at  present. 

Manufactures  are  of  comparatively  little  importance.  The  old 
handicrafts,  which  were  carried  on  in  the  homes  of  the  people, 
have  declined  in  importance  with  the  admission  of  foreign  goods, 
while  modern  manufactures  have  only  been  partially  established. 
The  weaving  of  woollen  fabrics  and  a  few  other  industries  are  chiefly 
carried  on  in  regions  where  water-power  is  obtainable,  though 
electric  motors  are  now  being  used  in  places. 

The  chief  exports  of  the  country  are  wheat  and  maize,  which 
constitute  about  one-half  of  the  total  exports.  With  eggs,  oats, 
rye,  barley,  attar  of  roses,  sheep's  and  lambs'  wool,  and  silkworm 
cocoons,  they  make  up  over  75  per  cent,  of  the  total  exports.  The 
imports  consist,  in  the  main,  of  textiles,  metals,  and  machinery. 

Austria-Hungary,  Germany,  and  the  United  Kingdom  are  the 
chief  importing  countries.  The  bulk  of  the  exports  go  to  Turkey, 
Belgium,  Germany,  and  Austria. 

Servia 

Servia  has  an  area  of  18,650  square  miles,  and  a  population  of 
about  2,900,000.  The  greater  part  of  the  country  is  mountainous  ; 
in  the  west  and  in  the  south  are  the  ancient  formations  ol  the 
Thraco-Macedonian  region,  while,  in  the  Balkan  districts  of  the 
east,  ranges  of  crystalline  rock  alternate  with  broad  plateaus  of 
limestone.  Only  in  the  north,  near  Belgrade,  is  there  any 
considerable  area  of  lowland. 

Agriculture,  in  one  form  or  another,  is  the  principal  occupation  of 
the  Servian  people.  Arable  farming  is  practised  mainly  in  the 
low-lying  districts  of  the  north,  and  in  the  valleys  of  the  rivers, 
more  especially  in  those  of  the  Morava  and  its  tributary,  the 
Western  Morava.  Maize  and  wheat  are  the  principal  products; 
the  first  of  these  constitutes  the  staple  food  of  the  population 
and  is  also  used  for  fattening  swine,  while  the  second  is  largely 
exported.  Climatic  conditions  favour  the  cultivation  of  fruit,  and 
vines  and  plums  are  both  extensively  grown.     From  the  former. 


THE   BALKAN   STATES  157 

a  good  wine  is  obtained ;  and  the  latter"  are  either  converted 
into  plum  brandy,  the  national  drink  of  the  Servians,  or  exported 
as  prunes.  In  the  oak  forests,  which  cover  considerable  areas  in 
the  upland  districts,  large  numbers  of  pigs  find  a  ready  supply  of 
food,  and  sheep  and  cattle  are  also  raised.  The  timber  resources 
of  the  country,  derived  mainly  from  oak  and  beech  forests,  are 
considerable,  though  their  value  has  been  considerably  reduced 
as  a  result  of  the  reckless  exploitation  to  which  they  have  been 
subjected. 

Mineral  wealth  is  believed  to  be  abundant,  but  little  has  been 
done  to  develop  it.  Coal,  mostly  of  a  lignitic  character,  is  worked 
in  the  north  of  the  country  and  elsewhere,  but  the  output  is  not 
large.  Copper,  lead,  and  zinc  are  also  obtained  in  small  quantities, 
and  other  minerals  are  known  to  exist.  Manufactures  are  of  little 
importance. 

The  economic  development  of  Servia  has,  as  yet,  hardly  begun. 
It  is  true  that  there  is  little  real  poverty  in  the  country,  as  practi- 
cally every  peasant  occupies  a  small  holding,  of  which  he  is  the 
proprietor ;  but  he  is  far  from  being  a  good  farmer,  as  his  agri- 
cultural methods  are  primitive,  and  full  advantage  is  not  taken 
of  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  The  exploitation  of  minerals  is  handi- 
capped, not  only  by  the  absence  of  good  means  of  communication, 
but  by  the  want  of  capital  within  the  country  itself,  and  by  the 
disturbed  political  conditions  which  have  hitherto  prevented  its  free 
flow  from  without.  The  geographical  situation  of  Servia,  more- 
over, compels  it  to  look  to  Austria-Hungary  for  a  market  for  the 
cereals,  cattle,  and  pigs,  which  are  its  chief  exports  ;  but  tariff  wars 
with  its  more  powerful  neighbour  have  seriously  crippled  its  trade 
within  recent  years.  An  outlet  in  the  Adriatic  has  become  for 
Servia  a  matter  of  urgent  necessity. 

Turkey  in  Europe 

The  European  part  of  the  Turkish  Empire  has  an  area  of 
104,000  square  miles  and  a  population  which  numbers  slightly 
over  8,000,000.  The  physical  and  political  divisions  to  some 
extent  correspond ;  Albania  belongs  to  the  Dinaric  range ;  Old 
Servia  and  Macedonia  form  part  of  the  old  mountain  system 
known  as  the  Thraco-Macedonian ;  and  Thrace  consists,  in  the 
main,  of  the  plains  of  Eastern  Turkey. 


158  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

Albania  is,  as  a  rule,  mountainous  throughout,  but,  while  th 
north  is  rugged  and  bare,  the  south  is  generally  covered  with  oa 
woods,  and  contains  considerable  areas  of  land  fit  for  cultivation^! 
The  inhabitants  are  among  the  least  civilised  people  in  Europe,  an 
find  a  much  greater  interest  in  fighting  with  one  another,  or  i 
raiding  their  more  prosperous  neighbours,  than  in  any  branch  of 
economic  activity.  Sheep  and  goats  are  reared  in  large  numbers 
in  the  north  of  the  country ;  while,  in  the  south,  maize  and  other 
cereals  are  grown  in  the  lowlands,  and  olives  near  the  coastj; 
Minerals  are  said  to  be  abundant,  but,  owing  to  the  undeveloped 
state  of  communications,  are  practically  unworked. 

The  Thraco-Macedonian  Region. — Encircled  by  the  hills 
which  cover  so  large  a  part  of  this  region,  there  are  many  fertile 
plains,  such  as  those  of  Monastir  and  Uskub,  Drama,  Serres,  and 
Saloniki.  Much  of  the  soil  could,  under  good  management,  be 
rendered  productive,  but  under  the  existing  regime  little  has  been 
done  for  its  amelioration.  Saloniki  is  the  centre  of  a  district  in 
which  cotton  and  vines  are  cultivated  ;  Drama  and  Kavalla  are 
noted  for  the  best  tobacco  grown  in  Europe  ;  the  silkworm  is  raised 
round  Ghevgheli ;  grain  is  the  chief  product  of  Monastir  and  Uskub 
Among  other  agricultural  products  of  the  region  are  opium; 
sesame,  eggs,  fennel,  and  beans.  The  mineral  wealth  of  Macedonia  is 
said  to  be  abundant,  but  its  extent  is  almost  entirely  unknown 
Chrome  and  manganese  have  been  worked,  but  the  exports  suffer 
from  the  lack  of  good  communication  with  the  coast,  and  the 
competition  of  the  mines  of  New  Caledonia.  There  are  few 
manufactures  in  the  region ;  but  in  and  around  Saloniki  cotton 
yarn  is  spun,  much  of  the  raw  material  employed,  however,  coming 
from  abroad. 

The  Basin  of  Adrianople  includes  the  remainder  of  European 
Turkey,  with  the  exception  of  the  low  Istranja  hills  which  lie  along 
the  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  their  continuation  along  the  Sea 
of  Marmora,  and  the  plutonic  promontory  upon  which  Constan- 
tinople stands.  Owing  to  its  steppe-like  character  much  of  the 
plain  is  given  up  to  pastoral  pursuits,  and  cheese  (made  from 
sheep's  milk)  is  one  of  the  principal  products  of  the  region, 
although  cereals  are  also  grown.  In  the  north,  where  a  certain 
amount  of  shelter  is  provided  by  the  hills,  there  are  vineyards  and 
rose  gardens  ;    and  Adrianople  and  Kirk-Kilisse  are  engaged  in 


THE   BALKAN   STATES  159 

the  production  of  wine,  much  of  which  is  exported  for  blending 
purposes.  In  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Maritza  the  mulberry  tree 
is  cultivated  and  the  silkworm  reared,  but  most  of  the  cocoons  are 
sent  to  Italy.  Tobacco  is  grown  in  the  west  round  Xanthi,  and 
garden  produce  in  the  vicinity  of  Constantinople. 

Adrianople,  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Maritza  with  its 
tributary  the  Tundja,  is  an  important  centre,  and  might  be  greatly 
developed  were  a  little  trouble  taken  to  render  navigable  the  river 
upon  which  it  stands.  Constantinople,  at  the  crossing  place  of 
routes  which  connect  the  Black  Sea  with  the  Mediterranean,  and 
Europe  with  Asia,  has  always  been  one  of  the  great  nodal  points 
of  the  world,  and  it  will  probably  gain  in  importance  by  the 
construction  of  railways  in  Western  Asia. 

Greece 

The  Kingdom  of  Greece  has  an  area  of  25,000  square  miles  and  a 
population  of  2,630,000.  The  country  is  mountainous  almost 
throughout  its  whole  extent.  The  Dinaric  range  runs  through 
the  west  of  Northern  and  Central  Greece,  and  occupies  the  greater 
part  of  the  Morea,  while  the  Ionian  Isles  also  belong  to  it.  In  the 
north-east,  mountains  of  the  Thraco-Macedonian  system  encircle 
the  plain  of  Thessaly,  the  largest  lowland  area  in  the  country. 
Elsewhere  the  plains  are  generally  of  small  extent,  and  are  sur- 
rounded by  the  mountains  among  which  they  lie.  The  climate  is 
t57pically  Mediterranean.  The  mean  temperature  for  January 
ranges  from  45°  F.  to  50°  F.  and  for  July  from  75°  F.  to  80"  F. 
The  rainfall,  which  occurs  during  the  winter  half  of  the  year,  aver- 
ages between  20  and  30  inches.  In  a  country  so  irregular  in  its 
topography  as  Greece,  a  division  into  natural  regions  would  involve 

i  great  detail ;  and  it  will  suffice  here  to  note  some  of  the  more 
important  areas  into  which  the  country  is  divided. 

The  Plains  of  Thessaly  form  the  chief  agricultural  region  of 
Greece,  but  much  of  the  land,  though  fertile,  is  as  yet  uncultivated. 
The  principal  crops  include  wheat,  barley  and  maize,  tobacco,  olives, 
and  cotton.  Of  these,  wheat  holds  the  first  place  in  importance  ; 
but  Greece  has  still  to  import  considerable  quantities  of  that  cereal, 

i  though  it  is  possible  that  Thessaly  may  yet  become  its  granary. 
Tobacco  ranks  next  to  wheat  in  the  value  of  the  output,  and  is 
largely  exported  to  Egypt  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  cigarette 


160  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

industry.     The  cultivation  of  cotton  is  increasing,  but  the  amount 
produced  is  inconsiderable.     Volo  is  the  chief  port  of  the  region. 

Central  Greece  contains  numerous  fertile  districts,  though 
most  of  them  are  but  indifferently  cultivated.  The  drained 
basin  of  Lake  Kopais  forms  the  largest  lowland  area  in  the  region ; 
and  there,  and  in  several  fertile  and  well-watered  plains  of 
Boeotia,  cotton  is  extensively  cultivated,  while  other  crops  include 
cereals,  olives,  vines,  and  tobacco.  Sheep,  goats,  and  pigs  are 
raised  in  large  numbers  in  the  upland  districts.  At  Laurium,  in 
Attica,  lead,  iron,  and  zinc  are  obtained,  but  the  mines  do  not 
appear  to  be  so  productive  as  formerly.  Further  to  the  north, 
white  and  blue  marble  is  obtained  in  the  quarries  of  Pentelikon. 
The  large  island  of  Eubcea,  off  the  east  coast,  is  principally  notec 
for  the  wine  which  it  produces  ;  but  it  also  exports  marble,} 
magnesia,  and  carbonate  of  magnesia.  Piraeus,  about  six  milej 
from  Athens,  is  the  chief  port  of  Greece,  and  has  spinning,  weaving^, 
and  engineering  establishments. 

The  Morea  is,  above  all,  noted  for  its  currants,  which  are  gro\ 
mainly  on  its  north  and  west  coasts.  Owing  to  increased  produce 
tion  and  the  fiscal  legislation  of  other  countries — ^notably  France 
and  Russia — prices  fell  seriously  some  years  ago,  and  the  output 
is  now  restricted  ;  but  whether  this  will  afford  more  than  temporary 
rehef  remains  to  be  seen.  Among  the  other  agricultural  products 
of  the  Morea  are  olives,  wine,  tobacco,  and  valonia. 

The  Ionian  Isles  include  Corfu,  Zante,  and  Cephalonia.  Corf 
exports  olive  oil,  and  Zante  and  Cephalonia  currants. 

The  Cyclades. — Several  of  the  islands  export  fruit  and  wine 
iron-ore  is  obtained  in  Seriphos ;   emery  in  Naxos ;    and  volcani< 
cement  in  Santorin. 

Commerce. — ^The  chief  exports  are  currants,  minerals,  wine,  an< 
olive  oil ;  while  the  imports  consist  mainly  of  food-stuffs,  textile 
coal,  timber,  and  machinery.  The  bulk  of  the  exports  go  to  th^ 
United  Kingdom,  Austria-Hungary,  France,  and  Germany ;  an< 
the  United  Kingdom,  Russia,  Austria-Hungary,  Turkey,  Germans 
and  France  are  the  chief  importing  countries.  The  total  valu^ 
of  the  trade  does  not  exceed  £10,000,000. 

Communications  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula. — ^The  develo] 
ment  of  communications  has  been  greatly  hampered  by  the  moui 
tainous  character  of  the  country.    There  are  few  good  roads  ;  an( 


THE    BALKAN    STATES  161 

with  the  exception  of  the  Danube  and  the  Save,  the  rivers  are  of 
Httle  use  for  navigation.  The  most  important  railway  is  that 
which  follows  what  is  known  as  the  "  diagonal  furrow  "  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  way  from  Belgrade  to  Constantinople  ;  it 
ascends  the  valley  of  the  Morava  to  Nish,  and  then  that  of  its 
tributary  the  Nishava,  after  which  it  passes  through  the  basin  of 
Sofia  and  descends  the  valley  of  the  Maritza,  in  which  it  continues 
till  it  has  passed  some  distance  south  of  Adrianople,  when  it  turns 
to  the  east  and  runs  across  the  Thracian  plain  to  Constantinople. 
From  Nish  another  line  continues  up  the  valley  of  the  Morava, 
crosses  over  by  Uskub  into  that  of  the  Vardar,  and  descends  to 
the  coast  at  Saloniki.  Saloniki  is  connected  with  Constantinople 
and  with  Monastir,  and  Uskub  with  Mitrovica  on  the  frontier  of 
Novi-Bazar.  Bulgaria  is  placed  in  communication  with  its  ports 
on  the  Black  Sea  by  two  Hnes,  one  of  which  runs  from  Sofia,  across 
the  Balkans  by  the  valley  of  the  Isker,  and  eastwards  to  Varna, 
while  the  other  connects  Philippopolis  with  Burgas.  In  Greece,  the 
most  important  railway  is  that  which  runs  north  from  Athens  by 
way  of  Larissa  to  Karalik-Derven  on  the  Turkish  frontier.  A  line 
from  Karalik-Derven  to  Gida  on  the  Saloniki-Monastir  route  would 
link  up  Greece  with  the  Emropean  railway  system. 

Chapters  XIV  and  XV  were  in  page  proof  before  the  readjustment  of 
boundaries  following  the  recent  Balkan  war  could  be  regarded  as  permanent, 
and  they  are  therefore  left  in  their  original  form.  Albania  is  now  recognised  as 
an  independent  State,  and  the  greater  part  of  Macedonia  has  been  divided 
between  Servia,  Greece,  and  Bulgaria.  Roumania  has  annexed  a  small  part 
of  Bulgaria. 


II— (1326) 


CHAPTER   XVI 

ITALY 

A  GLANCE  at  the  map  of  Italy  shows  three  great  physical  regions 
standing  in  marked  contrast  to  one  another.  The  zone  of  Alpine 
momitains  surrounds  the  country  on  the  north;  the  Apennines 
constitute  the  backbone  of  peninsular  Italy ;  and  the  plains  of 
the  Po  form  a  lowland  area  enclosed,  except  on  the  east,  by- the 
adjacent  highlands. 

The  southern  or  Italian  slope  of  the  Alps  differs  in  several  respects 
from  the  northern.  The  descent  is  much  more  abrupt,  and  in  the 
west  the  outer  rocks  are  entirely  wanting.  Further  east  the  lime- 
stone appears,  but  nowhere  is  it  so  fully  developed  as  on  the  northern 
slope.  Many  of  the  rivers  are  transverse  as  they  issue  on  to  the 
plain,  but  within  the  mountains  there  are  numerous  longitudinal 
valleys,  of  which  that  of  the  Adda  is  the  most  important.  The 
morainal  material  brought  down  by  Alpine  glaciers  has  built  up 
between  the  mountains  and  the  plains  a  belt  of  hills,  which  in  many 
cases  has  dammed  the  river  courses  and  caused  the  formation  of 
lakes. 

The  plains  of  the  Po  were  formerly  occupied  by  a  branch  of  th 
Adriatic,  which  gave  place  to  solid  land,  partly  as  a  result  of  thCj 
deposition  in  it  of  the  debris  carried  down  by  Alpine  and  Apenninei 
glaciers  and  streams,  and  partly  as  a  result  of  the  upheaval  of  iti 
bed.    The  surface  of  the  region  is  thus  composed  of  Quaternary 
material   and  is    generally  level.      Even  at  the  present  time  th 
work  of  the  rivers  in  building  up  the  plain  has  not  ceased,  an 
around  the  mouths  of  the  Po  the  land  is  gaining  at  the  expense  of; 
the  sea. 

The  Ligurian  Alps  are  considered  to  end,  and  the  Apennines  t 
begin,  at  the  CoUo  dell'  Altare,  west  of  Savona.  From  that  pass 
the  Apennines  pursue  their  course  throughout  the  whole  length 
of  the  peninsula,  crossing  over  to  the  east  coast  at  Ancona,,and 
returning  to  the  west  in  Calabria.  They  do  not  form  a  simple 
anticlinal  fold,  but  consist  of  a  series  of  folded  ranges.  In  Liguria 
and  Emilia  in  the  north,  where  they  are  built  up  of  clays  and 
other  material  of  Tertiary  age,  the  general  trend  of  the  ranges  is 

162 


ITALY  163 

to  the  south-east,  and  each  fold  in  turn  loses  its  height  towards 
that  direction,  while  its  function  as  a  watershed  is  taken  over  by  the 
range  lying  immediately  to  the  east.  On  the  west  the  rivers  are 
generally  longitudinal,  flowing  in  synclinal  valleys,  and  thus  facili- 
tating communications,  while  on  the  east  they  are,  as  a  rule,  trans- 
verse. The  Central  Apennines  of  Umbria  and  the  Marches  in  the 
north,  and  the  Abruzzi  in  the  south,  also  exhibit  a  folded  formation, 
but  in  a  less  marked  degree  than  in  the  north.  The  rocks  of  which 
they  consist  are  largely  of  Jurassic  and  Cretaceous  origin,  and  the 
scenery  is  bolder  and  wilder  than  it  is  on  the  Tertiary  clays,  while 
in  places  the  characteristics  of  a  Karst  region  prevail.  The  southern 
Apennines  are  distinguished  rather  by  their  broken  and  irregular 
features  than  by  folding.  They  fall  into  two  divisions  :  the  Nea- 
pohtan  and  the  Calabrian.  The  former  are  built  up  of  Triassic 
and  Tertiary  rocks,  while  the  latter  consist  in  part  of  Tertiary 
rocks,  and  in  part  of  the  mountainous  regions  of  Sila  and  Aspro- 
monte,  fragments  of  the  ancient  Archaean  land  mass  of  Tyrrhenia. 
Of  this  land  mass,  Sardinia  and  parts  of  Sicily,  Elba,  Tuscany,  and 
Calabria  are  now  the  only  remains. 

On  the  west  coast,  between  the  Apennines  and  the  Tyrrhenian 
Sea,  there  is  a  region  of  comparatively  low  elevation,  built  up  in 
various  ways.  In  Tuscany,  in  the  north,  are  fragments  of  the 
Tyrrhenian  block  already  mentioned.  Further  south,  along  the 
zone  of  fracture,  there  are  volcanic  districts  such  as  the  Alban  Hills, 
and  the  Phlegrsean  Fields  with  the  active  cone  of  Vesuvius.  The 
plains  of  Rome  and  Campania  consist  in  the  main  of  volcanic 
debris,  which  was  originally  deposited  on  the  floor  of  the  ocean, 
and  subsequently  raised  above  sea  level ;  but  the  lower  basins  of 
the  Arno,  the  Tiber,  and  some  smaller  rivers,  are  covered  with 
alluvium  brought  down  from  the  Apennines. 

On  the  east  coast,  there  extends  from  the  river  Fortore  to  the 
Gulf  of  Taranto  the  province  of  Apulia,  a  low-lying  plateau  with  an 
average  height  of  about  600  feet.  Tertiary  rocks  prevail  except  in 
the  Murgie  where  Cretaceous  formations,  frequently  covered  with 
loess,  reach  an  elevation  of  over  2,000  feet. 

The  cUmate  of  Italy  presents  several  features  of  interest.  The 
temperature  is  affected  by  the  modifying  influence  of  the  sea,  and 
by  the  protection  from  cold  northerly  winds  afforded  by  the  Alps, 
and  in  a  less  degree  by  the  Apennines.     In  the  Alps,  of  course. 


164  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

temperature  decreases  with  altitude,  but  many  of  the  sheltered 
valleys  have  mild  winters  ;  milder,  indeed,  than  those  of  the  plains. 
The  latter,  being  cut  off  from  the  westerly  winds  by  the  surround- 
ing mountains,  have  a  range  between  summer  and  winter  almost 
continental  in  character ;  the  average  temperature  for  January 
being  about  34°  F.,  and  for  July  about  74°  F.  In  peninsular 
Italy,  where  the  influence  of  the  sea  is  felt  to  a  greater  extent, 
the  January  temperature  is  higher  and  varies  from  40°  F.  in  the 
interior  and  about  41°  F.  on  the  Adriatic  to  about  45°  F.  on  the 
Tyrrhenian  coast,  while  the  average  July  temperature  over  the 
whole  region  is  from  74°  F.  to  76°  F. 

The  rainfall  occurs  mainly  in  the  winter  half  of  the  year.  In 
South  Italy  the  summers  are  rainless,  but  further  north  the  dis- 
tinction between  summer  and  winter  is  less  marked,  and  in  the 
northern  parts  of  the  plains  of  the  Po  the  rainfall  is  fairly  evenly 
distributed  throughout  the  year.  On  the  Alps  and  on  the  Alpine 
borderland  the  annual  precipitation  varies  from  40  to  60  inches, 
while  on  the  Ligurian  coast,  on  the  Northern  Apennines,  and  over 
a  district  lying  to  the  south  of  Rome,  it  exceeds  40  inches.  Else- 
where it  varies  from  30  to  40  inches,  except  in  Apulia  and  Sardinia, 
where  it  is  generally  between  20  and  30  inches. 

The  Alpine  Zone. — In  this  region  economic  activity  is  limited 
almost  entirely  to  the  valleys  and  the  lower  slopes  of  the  sur- 
rounding hills,  where  climatic  conditions  are  generally  favourable 
to  the  cultivation  of  the  olive  and  the  vine.  The  Valtellina  (the 
valley  of  the  Adda)  especially  is  noted  for  its  red  wine.  Mulberries 
grow  in  the  more  favoured  localities,  and  figs  and  pomegranates 
are  also  cultivated.  On  the  higher  slopes  pastoral  farming  alone 
is  possible.  A  certain  amount  of  industrial  development  has  taken 
place  within  recent  years.  Iron  ore  is  found  in  the  Dora  Baltea, 
the  Val  Trompia,  and  elsewhere,  and  is  smelted  either  by  charcoal 
derived  from  the  forests,  or  electric  power  derived  from  the  rivers. 
The  textile  industries  which  have  developed  in  the  valleys  may 
best  be  considered  along  with  those  of  the  plains  to  which  they 
really  belong. 

The  Plains  of  the  Po. — This  region  contains  over  40  per  cent 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Italy,  and  is,  both  agriculturally  and  industrially, 
the  most  important  in  the  country.  The  soil  is  generally  productive 
though  the  conditions  under  which  it  can  be  cultivated  vary  fro; 


it. 

I 

ml 


ITALY  165 

place  to  place.  Near  the  foothills  of  the  Alps,  where  glacial  gravels 
cover  much  of  the  surface,  the  land  does  not  easily  lend  itself  to 
arable  farming,  and  considerable  areas  are  kept  permanently  in 
grass.  This  is  also  the  case  in  the  districts  which  lie  in  the  lee  of 
the  Apennines  to  the  south  of  the  Po.  West  of  Mantua,  irrigation 
from  the  Po  and  its  tributaries  is  extensively  practised,  but  to  the 
east  of  that  town  drainage  frequently  becomes  more  important  than 
irrigation,  owing  to  the  seepage  from  the  rivers,  whose  beds  are 
continually  being  raised  above  the  level  of  the  surrounding  country. 

The  chief  cereals  grown  are  rice  and  maize.  The  former  is 
cultivated  on  the  irrigated  lands  between  Alessandria  and  Milan, 
and  in  the  swampy  districts  near  the  mouth  of  the  Po.  Italy  is 
the  only  European  country  in  which  rice  is  grown  to  any  extent, 
and  there  is  a  large  home  demand  for  it,  a  demand,  however,  which 
is  partly  met  by  importation  from  abroad,  much  of  the  Italian 
product,  on  account  of  its  superior  quality,  finding  a  more  profit- 
able market  elsewhere.  Maize  is  one  of  the  most  important  food- 
stuffs of  Italy,  and  can  best  be  grown  on  the  irrigated  lands  of 
this  region,  where  the  necessary  amount  of  moisture  can  be 
obtained.  Much  of  it  is  made  into  polenta,  the  favourite  food  of 
the  inhabitants  of  North  Italy.  On  the  grasslands  large  herds  of 
cattle  are  pastured,  and  such  well-known  cheeses  as  Gorgonzola  and 
Parmesan  are  manufactured. 

The  winters  are  too  cold  to  allow  the  olive  to  flourish,  but  the 
mulberry  is  extensively  grown,  and  over  three-fourths  of  the  raw 
silk  produced  in  Italy  comes  from  this  region,  more  especially  from 
Piedmont  and  Lombardy.  It  is  said  that  sufficient  care  is  not 
devoted  to  the  rearing  of  the  silkworm,  and  that  the  product 
is  beginning  to  suffer. 

Various  circumstances  combined  to  foster  the  great  industrial 
development  of  the  north.  For  the  manufacture  of  silk  there  was 
the  initial  advantage  of  a  large  supply  of  raw  material.  Textile 
pursuits  generally  were  encouraged,  both  by  the  example  set  by 
the  neighbouring  countries  of  France  and  Switzerland,  and  by 
French  and  Swiss  operatives  who  emigrated  to  Italy,  taking  with 
them  a  knowledge  of  their  craft.  From  the  densely  populated 
plains  of  the  Po  a  large  supply  of  cheap  labour  was  readily  obtain- 
able. The  absence  of  coal  has,  no  doubt,  been  a  serious  drawback, 
for,  although  it  can  easily  be  imported,  the  expense  is  considerable. 


166  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

On  the  other  hand,  the  large  suppHes  of  water-power  available 
from  the  Alpine  rivers  have  been  extensively  utilised  during  the 
last  ten  years  for  the  generation  of  electricity.  For  example,  the 
station  at  Paderno,  on  the  Adda,  supplies  Milan  and  Monza ;  while 
those  at  Vizzola,  on  the  Ticino,  and  at  Campocologno,  on  the 
Brusio  (in  Switzerland),  a  tributary  of  the  Adda,  provide  electric 
energy  for  an  important  industrial  area  between  Gallarate  and 
Milan. 

The  plain  of  the  Po  is  naturally  the  most  important  region  in 
the  country  for  the  manufacture  of  silk,  and  90  per  cent,  of  the 
Italian  output  is  produced  there  and  in  the  neighbouring  Alpine 
valleys.  Lombardy  alone  accounts  for  60  per  cent,  of  the  total 
product,  the  chief  towns  engaged  in  the  industry  being  Como, 
Milan,  and  Bergamo.  Formerly,  the  Italians  confined  themselves 
to  the  spinning  and  throwing  of  silk,  and  the  thread  was  sent 
abroad  to  be  woven,  but  recently  large  weaving  establishments 
have  been  set  up  within  the  country  itself,  especially  at  Como  and 
Milan.  The  continued  progress  of  the  industry  necessitates  the 
importation  of  an  increasing  amount  of  raw  material  from  the 
Levant  and  the  Far  East,  as  the  production  of  raw  silk  in  Italy 
itself  is  growing  but  slowly.  The  quantity  imported  has  trebled 
during  the  last  twenty  years,  and  now  amounts  to  over  one-fifth 
of  the  total  quantity  manufactured.  ^l^an_js_thej:,pntrp.  for  the 
collection  and  distribution  of  silk  in  Italy,  and  has  of  late  years 
entirely  surpassed  Lyons  as  the  chief  silk  market  in  Europe. 

While  the  silk  industry  has  considerable  natural  facilities  in  the 
proximity  of  large  suppHes  of  raw  material,  the  cotton  industry, 
with  which  it  may  be  compared,  is  without  any  such  advantage, 
the  production  of  raw  cotton  in  Italy  being  negligible.  Until 
1887,  Italy  imported  large  quantities  of  cotton  goods,  but,  when 
a  highly  protective  tariff  was  imposed  in  that  year,  many  of  those 
Swiss  manufacturers  who  had  hitherto  supplied  the  Italian  market 
built  additional  mills  in  Italy,  and  thus  gave  a  great  impetus  to 
the  industry  in  that  country.  With  the  lapse  of  time  the  proportion 
of  Swiss-owned  to  Italian-owned  mills  has  fallen,  and  the  cotton 
industry  may  now  be  regarded  as  naturalised.  At  present  there 
are  about  4,500,000  spindles  and  110,000  power-looms  in  the 
country,  and  these  are  chiefly  found  in  the  region  under  considera- 
tion, more  especially  in  Lombardy  and  Piedmont,  where  electric 


ITALY  167 

power  is  frequently  used  for  driving  the  machinery.  The  greater 
part  of  the  raw  material  consumed  in  the  mills  comes  from  the 
United  States,  the  remainder  being  suppUed  by  India  and  Egypt. 
The  yarns  which  are  produced  tend  on  the  whole  to  be  coarse,  but 
the  quality  is  steadily  improving  ;  while  woven  goods,  besides 
supplying  almost  entirely  the  home  demand,  find  a  ready  market 
in  the  Levant  and  in  South  America,  where  the  large  Italian  popu- 
lation in  Brazil  and  the  Argentine  prefers  to  have  materials  of  a 
kind  to  which  it  has  been  accustomed. 

Woollen  goods  are  in  considerable  demand  in  North  Italy,  as 
the  winters  are  cold ;  and  they  are  manufactured  in  various  places, 
but  more  especially  at  Biella  in  Novara,  where  over  25,000  people 
are  engaged  in  the  industry.  A  considerable  amount  of  cotton  is, 
however,  used  along  with  the  wool  in  the  manufactures  of  this 
town. 

The  development  of  metallurgical  work  is  due  rather  to  the 
general  industrial  movement  which  is  taking  place  than  to  any 
direct  advantage  of  a  geographical  nature.  Although  some  iron 
ore  is  found  and  worked  in  the  Alpine  valleys,  the  most  of  that 
which  is  used  comes  either  from  other  parts  of  Italy  or  from  abroad. 
At  present,  the  chief  establishments  connected  with  the  manufacture 
of  iron  and  steel  goods  are  situated  in  the  larger  towns  and  at 
the  ports.  Milan  turns  out  locomotives,  wggons,  ^^'^  o}ori^r\o.  . 
machinery  ;  Turin  makes  railway  stock,  and  especially  wagons. 
There  are  large  engineering  works  at  Pont-Saint-Martin  in  the  Val 
di  Aosta,  and  at  Udine;  and  Venice  is  engaged  in  shipbuilding. 

Among  other  industries  which  may  be  mentioned  is  the  manu- 
facture of  chemical  manures,  mainly  superphosphates,  at  various 
towns  throughout  the  region ;  of  calcium  carbide  at  Pont-Saint- 
Martin  and  other  places  where  water-power  is  obtainable  ;  of  glass 
at  Murano  ;  of  lace  in  Venice  and  the  neighbouring  islands ;  of 
straw  hats  at  Marostica,  near  Bassano ;  and  of  arms  at  Bologna. 
Peninsular  Italy. — Although  the  general  character  of  cultivation 
and  economic  development  remain  much  the  same  throughout  the 
whole  of  peninsular  Italy,  the  differences  in  structure,  topography, 
and  climate,  which  have  already  been  noted,  make  it  possible  to 
distinguish  a  number  of  regions  each  with  its  own  characteristics. 

The  Northern  Apennines  contain  a  large  area  of  fertile  land 
which  can  be  utilised,  although  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  terrace 


168  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

the  hillsides.  The  extremely  favourable  climate  on  the  southern 
slopes  of  the  Ligurian  Apennines  renders  possible  the  cultivation 
not  only  of  the  olive  and  the  vine,  which  are  grown  throughout 
the  region,  but  of  the  orange  and  the  lemon,  the  typical  fruits  of 
southern  Italy.  On  the  extensive  pasture  lands  large  numbers 
of  cattle  are  raised.  The  manufactures  are  mainly  confined  to 
the  ports.  Genoa  is  engaged  in  shipbuilding,  iron  smelting,  and 
cotton  spinning,  Savona  has  engineering  works,  and  Spezia 
shipbuilding  yards. 

The  Central  Apennines  being  more  rugged  than  the  northern, 
and  presenting  in  places  the  appearance  of  a  Karst  country,  are 
frequently  ill-adapted  for  cultivation.  In  Umbria,  only  the  plains, 
which  are  of  limited  extent,  and  the  lower  slopes  of  the  hills  are 
fertile.  The  greater  part  of  the  Abruzzi  consists  of  broken  wooded 
country,  cut  up  into  isolated  plateaus,  but  the  eastern  slope 
contains  more  fertile  soil,  and  both  there  and  in  the  Marches  the 
usual  products  of  the  Apennines — olives,  vines,  cereals,  flax,  and 
hemp — are  grown.  The  Marches  and  Umbria  produce  large 
quantities  of  the  first  of  these,  but  the  Abruzzi  is  less  noteworthy 
in  this  respect.  Of  the  manufactures  of  this  region  the  most 
important  are  the  steel  works  at  Terni,  which  have  electric  power, 
generated  by  the  Nera. 

The  Southern  Apennines  contain  large  areas  of  mountainous 
woodland,  where,  as  in  the  Basilicata,  little  cultivation  is  possible. 
On  the  lower  slopes  of  the  hills,  and  in  the  valleys,  olives,  vines, 
fruit,  and  cotton  are  grown.  The  olive  crop  is  of  importance,  but 
the  cotton  only  amounts  to  a  few  thousand  bales,  and  cannot  be 
used  for  anything  but  the  manufacture  of  coarse  articles. 

The  Apennine  Foreland — ^West  Coast. — This  includes  several 
distinct  physical  regions.  The  greater  part  of  Tuscany  consists 
of  an  intermingling  of  hill  and  plain.  In  the  Apuan  hills  in  the 
north,  limestones  of  Triassic  and  lower  Jurassic  times  have  been 
converted  into  marble  and  are  quarried  at  Carrara.  The  chief 
agricultural  products  are  olives,  the  oil  from  which  is  much  in 
demand  ;  vines,  from  which  the  well-known  Chianti  wine  is  made  ; 
and  wheat,  which  forms  the  basis  of  the  straw-plaiting  industry 
of  the  district.  Along  the  coast  of  Tuscany  is  the  Maremma,  a 
lowlying  strip  of  land  built  up  of  debris  brought  down  by  the 
rivers,  and  swept  in  by  the  current.     Formerly  it  was  marshy  and 


ITALY  169 

unhealthy,  but  drainage  has  converted  much  of  it  into  rich  pasture 
land,  and  it  is  now  an  important  dairying  district.  Further  south 
on  both  sides  of  the  lower  Tiber,  and  occupying  a  considerable 
part  of  Latium,  is  the  region  to  which  the  name  Campagna  is 
somewhat  loosely  given.  The  soil  consists  of  volcanic  debris, 
but,  although  it  is  fertile,  it  is  lowlying,  subject  to  flooding,  and 
productive  of  malaria.  Hence  it  is  devoted  mainly  to  grazing 
purposes,  and  there  are  few  inhabitants.  Attempts  at  reclamation 
have  been  made,  and  it  is  possible  that  it  may  ultimately  regain 
its  ancient  fertiUty.^:!  On  the  volcanic  soil  of  the  Alban  Hills 
and  of  Campania  are  some  of  the  richest  districts  in  all  Italy, 
olives,  vines,  figs,  and  other  fruits  being  grown  in  great  profusion. 
In  Campania,  especially,  where  there  are  many  opportunities  for 
irrigation,  the  methods  of  cultivation  are  intensive,  and  the  individual 
holdings  are  small.     Accordingly,  there  is  a  dense  population. 

Manufactures  are  growing  up  around  the  principal  towns.  Leg- 
horn, in  addition  to  long-established  industries  such  as  the  pre- 
paration of  olive  oil  and  the  plaiting  of  straw,  has  recently  estab- 
lished copper  and  glass  works.  Florence  is  the  centre  of  the  straw 
hat  industry,  and  makes  large  quantities  of  macaroni,  both  pursuits 
being  based  on  the  wheat  production  of  the  surrounding  country. 
Rome  is  still  largely  a  non-manufacturing  city,  but,  with  the 
development  of  the  water-power  of  the  Aniene  at  Tivoli  and  Subiaco, 
it  is  likely  to  make  rapid  progress  in  the  near  future,  .iiadfi^ 
has  made  the  greatest  advance  within  recent  years.  In  order  to 
encourage  industrial  development  the  municipality  has  offered, 
practically  free,  sites  and  water-power  for  manufacturing  establish- 
ments, and  has  remitted  for  two  years  all  taxation  of  manufacturers 
who  settle  in  the  town.  Accordingly,  a  varied  selection  of  industrial 
concerns,  including  textile  factories,  sugar  mills,  and  motor  works, 
has  sprung  up  within  the  free  zone.  All  these  are  under  the 
disadvantage  of  being  unable  to  draw  upon  a  supply  of  skilled 
labour.  On  the  other  hand,  what  labour  exists  is  cheap,  water- 
power  is  available,  and  there  is  a  good  port.  To  what  extent 
the  main  disadvantage  will  be  overcome  remains  to  be  seen,  but  the 
prospects  appear  to  be  fairly  good. 

Apulia,  lying  to  the  east  of  the  Apennines,  has  a  low  rainfall, 
but  is  well  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  wheat,  which  ripens  during 
the  spring  months,  before  the  hot,  rainless  summer  begins.     The 


170  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

province  is  the  most  important  wheat-growing  region  in  Italy  at 
the  present  time,  and  the  hard  wheat  produced  is  specially  suitable 
for  the  manufacture  of  macaroni.  The  Murgie  is  covered  with 
vineyards  and  olive  plantations,  the  area  under  olives  in  this  region 
being  greater  than  in  any  other  part  of  Italy.  The  chief  towns 
are  Bari,  Brindisi,  and  Taranto,  but  their  importance  is  commercial 
rather  than  industrial. 

Sicily  may  be  regarded  as,  in  the  main,  a  continuation  of  the 
Apennine  chain.  In  the  north-east  there  is  a  fragment  of  the 
Tyrrhenian  block,  and  around  Etna  much  of  the  country  is  over- 
laid with  volcanic  rocks.  Sulphur,  obtained  in  the  latter  district, 
is  the  most  important  mineral  product  of  the  island,  and  the  refining 
of  sulphur  gives  employment  to  a  large  number  of  people.  But 
the  industry  appears  to  have  got  into  difficulties  within  recent 
years.  There  has  been  overproduction,  the  French  have  imposed 
heavy  duties  on  the  refined  article,  and  the  use  of  sulphur  has 
been  abandoned  in  favour  of  pyrites  by  the  Norwegian  paper 
mills. 

The  north  and  east  coasts  have  the  most  favourable  climate, 
as  they  are  exposed  to  the  influence  of  warm  winds  from  the  sea. 
Hence,  they  constitute  the  most  important  agricultural  districts, 
and  grow  olives,  vines,  fruit,  and  wheat  in  large  quantities.  The 
mulberry  is  raised  in  the  province  of  Messina,  and  there  is  an 
important  silk  industry. 

faknno,  the  largest  town  in  Sicily,  is  engaged  in  shipbuilding, 
the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel  goods,  and  various  other  industries. 
Messina^is  beginning  to  recover  from  the  damage  done  by  the  great 
earthquake  of  1908.      r.at^|^ia  has  large  sulphur  refineries. 

Elba  consists  of  part  of  ancient  Tyrrhenia.  Olives  and  vines 
are  grown,  but  the  chief  product  of  the  island  is  iron  ore,  which  is 
extensively  worked.  There  are  blast  furnaces  at  Portoferraio,  and 
Bessemer  steel  works  have  recently  been  established.  Coal  is 
imported  for  the  manufacture  of  coke. 

Sardinia  is  likewise  a  fragment  of  the  Tyrrhenian  block.  The 
interior  is  wild  and  forested,  but  on  the  lower  slopes  of  the  hills 
the  usual  products  of  the  Mediterranean  region  are  grown.  Oranges 
and  lemons  thrive,  especially  on  the  volcanic  soils  of  Monte  Ferru. 
The  chief  economic  products  of  the  island  are  minerals,  lead  and 
zinc  being  the  most  important. 


J 


ITALY  171 

Communications. — ^The  growth  of  the  railway  system  of  Italy, 
and  more  especially  the  construction  of  the  Alpine  tunnels,  has 
influenced  the  economic  development  of  the  country  in  a  marked 
degree.  The  Alps,  although  they  never  offered  an  effective  barrier, 
either  in  war  or  commerce,  yet  presented  a  considerable  obstacle 
to  that  free  movement  of  heavy  goods,  which  is  so  striking 
a  feature  of  modern  trade.  Since  the  opening  of  the  tunnels, 
the  industrial  region  of  Italy  has  been  brought  into  easy  com- 
munication with  the  most  important  industrial  regions  of  Central 
Europe.  The  chief  lines  are  as  follows.  One  railway  connected 
with  the  Paris-Lyons-Mediterranean  system  enters  the  country 
from  France  by  the  Mont  Cenis  tunnel  and  descends  the  Dora 
Riparia  to  Turin.  Of  the  lines  from  Switzerland,  that  from 
Lausanne  passes  through  the  Simplon  tunnel  and  follows  the 
course  of  the  Toce  to  Novara,  while  that  from  Basel  enters  the  Val 
Leventine  by  the  St.  Gothard  tunnel  and  runs  alongside  the  Ticino 
to  the  head  of  Lake  Maggiore,  whence  it  goes  by  Lugano  and  Como  to 
Milan.  The  line  from  Innsbruck  passes  over  the  Brenner,  and 
utilises  the  valleys  of  the  Eisak  and  the  Etsch,  or  Adige,  as  far 
as  Verona.  Further  east,  a  line  from  Venice  joins  the  line  that 
runs  from  Vienna  to  Trieste  by  the  Semmering  pass.  The  towns 
which  have  been  mentioned — Turin,  Novara,  Milan,  Verona,  and 
Venice — are  all  connected  by  a  railway  which  follows  the  general 
direction  of  the  ancient  highway  upon  which  they  stand,  a  highway 
which  ran  from  east  to  west  sufficiently  near  the  meeting  place  of 
mountain  and  plain  to  be  free  from  the  occasional  floods  along  the  Po 
and  the  lower  courses  of  its  tributaries.  Another  important  line  runs 
from  Turin  by  Alessandria,  Piacenza,  Cremona,  Mantua,  and 
Padua  to  Venice,  while  a  third,  breaking  off  at  Piacenza,  follows 
the  Emilian  way  to  Rimini,  and  touches  those  towns  which  have 
grown  up  where  the  Apennine  valleys  open  out  on  to  the  plains 
of  North  Italy.  Lines  from  Milan  and  Turin  pass  through  tunnels 
in  the  Apennines,  and  place  Lombardy  and  Piedmont  in  communi- 
cation with  the  port  of  Genoa ;  and  Savona  is  also  connected  by 
rail  with  the  North  Italian  lowlands.  The  general  configuration 
of  peninsular  Italy  forces  many  of  the  railways  of  that  region  to 
run  at  no  great  distance  inland,  and  from  Genoa  to  Rimini,  round 
the  south  of  Italy,  all  the  towns  which  stand  on  or  near  the  coast 
are  linked  together  by  hues  which  are  seldom  more,  and  frequently 


172  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

much  less,  than  twenty  miles  from  the  sea.  Notwithstanding  the 
difficulties  presented  by  the  Apennines,  a  number  of  railways  now 
connect  the  Tyrrhenian  and  Adriatic  sides  of  the  peninsula.  One 
runs  from  Pisa  to  Bologna  by  way  of  Pistoja,  taking  advantage 
of  the  valleys  of  the  Ombrone  and  the  Reno.  Another  runs  along- 
side of  the  Amo  from  Pisa  to  Florence,  passes  through  several 
tunnels,  and  descends  the  valley  of  the  Lamone  to  Faenza. 
From  Rome  a  railway  follows  the  route  indicated  by  the  Tiber, 
the  Nera,  and  the  Topino,  and,  after  descending  the  eastern  slope  of 
the  Apennines  by  the  valley  of  the  Esino,  runs  to  Ancona.  In  the 
south  of  the  peninsula  several  lines  cross  from  Naples  to  the  east 
coast. 

The  Italian  rivers  are  of  little  use  for  navigable  purposes.  Numbers 
of  small  boats  are  found  on  the  Po  cis  well  as  on  some  of  its  tribu 
taries,  and  on  the  irrigation  and  other  canals,  but  all  these  are  alike 
unsuitable  for  larger  craft.  On  the  other  hand,  the  great  length 
of  the  peninsula  has  led  to  the  development  of  a  considerable  coasting 
trade  in  which  saiHng  ships  are  chiefly  engaged. 

Commerce. — Silk  is  the  most  important  element  in  the  foreign 
trade  of  Italy  at  the  present  time.  Much  of  the  native  product  is 
exported  to  Switzerland,  France,  Germany,  and  the  United  States, 
while  considerable  quantities  are  imported  from  the  Levant  and  the 
East.  Of  importance,  also,  is  the  export  of  manufactured  silk, 
which  goes  mainly  to  the  countries  of  Central  Europe,  to  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  to  the  United  States.  Cotton  goods,  as  already 
mentioned,  find  their  market  in  the  Levant  and  in  South  America 
The  exportation  of  wine  suffered  a  severe  check  a  few  years  ago 
as  the  result  of  an  increase  in  the  Austro-Hungarian  tariff  on  that 
commodity,  but  a  new  market  for  it  appears  to  be  opening  up 
among  the  Italian  population  of  the  Argentine.  Of  the  other 
exports,  ohve  oil  is  sent  to  France  ;  butter,  eggs,  and  cheese  to  the 
United  Kingdom  and  elsewhere ;  and  macaroni  to  the  United 
States.  Of  the  articles  imported  into  the  country,  coal  comes 
chiefly  from  Great  Britain,  but  to  some  extent  from  Germany 
and  the  latter  country  has,  since  the  opening  of  the  Alpine  tunnels, 
been  able  to  capture  the  greater  part  of  the  trade  in  iron  and  steel] 
goods,  including  machinery.  Wheat  comes  from  Russia,  the 
Argentine,  the  United  States,  and  Roumania.  Within  the  las 
few    years    Germany   has    advanced    to    the  first    place   in   th 


ITALY  173 

list  of  countries  from  which  Italy  obtains  her  imports,  the  United 
Kingdom  being  second,  and  the  United  States  third.  On  the 
other  hand,  Switzerland  is  still  the  chief  consumer  of  Italian 
produce,  Germany  comes  second,  the  United  States  third,  and 
France  fourth.  For  the  years  1906-10  the  imports  for  home 
consumption  were  valued  at  ;f  117,000,000,  and  the  exports  of 
domestic  produce  at  £76,000,000. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

THE  IBERIAN   PENINSULA 

The  Iberian  Peninsula,  which  includes  the  two  countries  of  Spain 
and  Portugal,  has  an  area  of  226,000  square  miles.  Its  central 
part,  which  belongs  to  the  zone  of  ancient  massifs  and  is  known  as 
the  Meseta,  consists  of  a  plateau  with  a  height  of  over  2,000  feet. 
On  the  north-east,  the  Meseta  is  bordered  by  the  Iberian  mountains 
which  separate  it  from  the  basin  of  the  Ebro ;  and  on  the  south-east 
by  the  Sierra  Morena  which  overlooks  the  basin  of  the  Guadalquivir, 
and  is  in  reality  only  the  escarpment  of  the  plateau.  The  surface 
of  the  Meseta  consists  of  great  plains  separated  from  one  another 
by  mountain  ranges  which  have  a  general  trend  from  south-west 
to  north-east.  Of  these  ranges  the  most  important  are  the  Sierr; 
de  Credos  and  the  Sierra  de  Guadarrama,  which  separate  the  plai 
of  Old  Castile  from  those  of  New  Castile.  In  the  north-west,  in  Gahcia 
and  in  Upper  Portugal,  the  rocks  of  which  the  mountains  consisi 
are  of  Archaean  age ;  in  the  south-west  they  belong  in  the  main  t( 
early  Palaeozoic  times;  and  in  the  north-east  and  east  they  wer< 
formed  during  the  Secondary  period.  The  plains  of  Old  and  Ne\< 
Castile  are  overlain  by  Tertiary  deposits,  as  are  the  basins  of  th< 
Guadalquivir  and  the  Ebro,  the  latter  of  which  is  cut  off  from  th< 
sea  by  the  mountains  of  Catalonia.  To  the  south  of  these  moun 
tains,  the  plateau  withdraws  from  the  seaboard  sufficiently  far  t 
allow  the  formation  of  the  narrow  coastal  plain  of  Valenci 
On  the  west  it  slopes  down  to  the  plain  of  Lower  Portugal.  Th 
basin  of  the  Ebro  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Cantabria: 
mountains  and  the  Pyrenees,  while  to  the  south  of  the  GuadaL 
quivir  is  the  Sierra  Nevada.  These  ranges  were  folded  during  th 
Tertiary  period,  and  consist  in  the  main  of  old  rocks,  flanked  i 
places  by  later  formations. 

Climate. — Although  the  Iberian  Peninsula  is  almost  entire! 
surrounded  by  water,  the  direct  influence  of  the  ocean  upon  it 
climate  is  comparatively  slight,  and  is  felt  mainly  upon  the  nortl 
and  north-west  coasts  where  the  range  of  temperature  betweei 
summer  and  winter  is  less  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  peninsula 
There,  the  January  mean  (at  sea-level)  varies  from  46°F.  to  50°F.| 
while  that  of  July  hes  between  68°F.  and  70°F.  On  the  plateau  th 
range  is  much  greater,  the  summers  being  hotter  and  the  winten 

174 


I 


THE   IBERIAN   PENINSULA  175 

colder.  At  Madrid,  for  example,  the  mean  temperature  for  January 
is  40°F.  and  for  July  76°F.  In  Andalusia  and  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean seaboard  the  summers  are  everywhere  hot,  the  July  mean 
in  the  lowlands  ranging  from  75°F.  to  80°F.  To  the  south  of  the 
Meseta,  however,  the  winters  are  somewhat  warmer  than  they  are 
along  the  north-east  coast,  the  January  mean  in  the  former  region 
being  above,  and  in  the  latter  below,  50°F.  Except  on  the  north  and 
north-west  coasts,  which  have  from  30  to  60  inches,  the  annual 
precipitation  is  sUght,  and  only  occurs  during  the  winter  half  of  the 
year.  In  the  south-west  the  amount  received  does  not  exceed 
30  inches,  while  on  the  plateau  and  along  the  Mediterranean  coast 
it  is  generally  less  than  20  inches. 

Natural  Regions. — Climate  and  position  are  the  chief  factors 
in  determining  the  natural  regions  of  the  Iberian  peninsula.  In 
Spain,  the  Cantabrian  mountains  in  the  north,  and  the  greater  part 
of  the  Archaean  mass  of  Galicia  in  the  north-west,  have  a  climate 
essentially  different  from  that  of  other  parts  of  the  country.  The 
Meseta,  again,  is  effectively  marked  off  from  the  lands  to  the  south 
and  east,  both  by  its  elevation  and  by  the  great  range  of  temperature 
which  exists  between  the  heat  of  summer  and  the  cold  of  winter. 
In  the  south  of  Spain,  the  lowlands  in  the  basin  of  the  Guadalquivir 
and  along  the  Mediterranean  coast  have  a  sub-tropical  climate; 
and  with  them  may  be  included  for  convenience  the  slopes  of  the 
Sierra  Morena  and  the  folded  range  of  the  Sierra  Nevada.  Along 
the  north-east  coast  the  climate  is  typically  Mediterranean.  The 
lowlands  in  the  basin  of  the  Ebro  occupy  a  position  which  is 
climatically  intermediate  between  the  Meseta  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean, while  the  Pyrenees  stand  by  themselves.  On  the  west 
coast  a  broad  distinction  may  be  noted  between  Upper  Portugal, 
which  is  on  the  whole  mountainous  and  possesses  a  climate  somewhat 
similar  to  that  of  north  and  north-west  Spain,  and  Lower  Portugal, 
which  contains  considerable  lowland  areas  and  has  a  chmate 
approximating  to  that  of  southern  Spain. 

SPAIN. 

The  North- West  Coastal  Region  is  the  most  densely  populated 
of  all  the  natural  regions  of  Spain.  This  is  due  in  part  to  its  favour- 
able climate,  and  in  part  to  the  vast  stores  of  minerals  which  it 
contains.     Agriculture  is  carried  on  in  the  valleys  and  in  other 


176  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

favoured  localities,  maize  being  the  principal  cereal  grown,  especi 
ailly  in  the  west.    The  vine  is  extensively  cultivated,  but  the  wine 
produced  therefrom  is  somewhat  inferior  in  quality,  and  little  of  it 
is  exported  abroad.     Other  plants  include  beet,  flax,  and  potatoes. 
This  region  is  also  well  adapted  to  cattle-raising  owing  to  the  good 
grasslands  which  it  contains,  and  over  one-third  of  the  cattle  in 
Spain  are  found  within  it,  mainly  in  Galicia  and  the  Asturias. 
The  mountains  are  well  wooded,  and  from  their  upper  slopes  are 
obtained  the  pines  which  are  made  into  pit-props  and  exported  to 
Cardiff.    The  mineral  wealth  consists  in  the  main  of  coal  and  iron. 
Coal  is  obtained  in  the  province  of  Oviedo,  where  the  mines  at 
Gijon  produce  about  two-thirds  of  the  total  Spanish  output.    The 
production  of  iron  is  still  more  important.     Siliceous  ore  is  mined 
in  the  Asturias,  but  the  bulk  of  the  output  consists  of  red  haematite 
from  the  provinces  of  Santander,  Vizcaya,  and  Guipuzcoa.    This 
ore,  which  is  suitable  for  conversion  into  Bessemer  steel,  has  in  the 
past  been  obtained  from  open  quarries,  but  these  are  already  worker 
out ;  and  it  is  believed  that  at  the  present  rate  of  production  th 
resources  of  the  Basque  provinces  and  Santander  will  be  exhaustedj 
within  a  comparatively  short  time.    On  the  other  hand,  large  quanti- 
ties of  ore  are  known  to  exist  in  Oviedo,  Lugo,  and  Leon,  furthe 
to  the  west,  and  it  is  probable  that  these  will  in  the  future  constitut 
the  chief  source  of  supply.     The  north-west  region  produces  abou 
two-thirds  of  the  iron  ore  mined  in  Spain  at  the  present  time.     Muc 
of  it  is  exported,  especially  to  the  United  Kingdom,  from  Bilbao, 
Santander,  and  various  ports  along  the  coast.      Other  minerals 
include  manganese  ore  from  Oviedo,  and  zinc  from  Santander. 

Manufactures  have  not  been  developed  to  any  great  extent, 
Bilbao  and  Santander  have  blast  furnaces,  and  are  engaged  i 
the  iron  and  steel  industries,  and  Bilbao  has  also  shipbuilding 
yards.  For  these,  coal  is  imported  from  the  Asturias  and  from  the 
United  Kingdom.  Further  west,  fishing  is  the  chief  pursuit  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  coastal  towns. 

The  Meseta  is  of  less  economic  importance  than  the  preceding 
region.  The  want  of  sufficient  moisture  renders  considerable  areas 
unfit  for  cultivation.  In  Old  Castile,  which  is  more  exposed  ta 
oceanic  winds  and  has  a  somewhat  greater  rainfall  than  the 
remainder  of  the  plateau,  agricultural  conditions  are  not  altogethet 
unfavourable,  but  in  Estremadura  and  in  the  south  and  south -easi 


THE   IBERIAN    PENINSULA  177 

of  New  Castile  there  are  large  tracts  of  infertile  soil.  Wheat  is 
the  principal  grain  crop,  especially  in  Old  Castile  ;  it  is  noted  for 
its  whiteness  and  softness,  and  large  quantities  of  it  are  milled  at 
Valladolid,  which  is  an  important  collecting  centre.  Oats  and  rye 
are  cultivated  in  the  more  mountainous  districts.  The  vine  is 
grown  all  over  the  region,  but  the  olive  is  restricted  to  the  more 
southerly  parts  of  it.  These  crops  are  all  grown  on  unirrigated 
land ;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  land  on  which  cereals  are  produced  is 
only  cultivated  every  other  year.  For  the  growth  of  beetroot  and 
fruit,  irrigation  is  necessary,  but  the  facilities  for  this  upon  the 
Meseta  are  very  limited  and  the  area  irrigated  is  small. 

Pastoral  farming  is  an  important  pursuit,  and  considerably  more 
than  one-half  of  the  sheep  in  Spain  are  found  upon  the  Meseta, 
Estremadura,  from  which  come  the  finest  merino  wools,  rearing 
the  largest  number.  Sheep  are  generally  moved  from  the  plains 
to  the  more  mountainous  districts  of  Old  Castile  and  Leon  during 
the  summer,  in  order  that  they  may  not  suffer  so  much  from  the 
drought  which  then  prevails.  With  the  exception  of  Madrid, 
upon  which  lines  of  communication  converge  from  all  quarters, 
and  Valladolid,  the  largest  trading  centre  in  Old  Castile,  the  towns 
are  of  httle  importance. 

Southern  Spain  enjoys  warm  winters,  and  a  considerable 
variety  of  sub-tropical  plants  can  be  cultivated.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  low  rainfall  renders  irrigation  necessary,  especially  in 
eastern  Andalusia  and  along  the  Mediterranean  coast.  Oranges 
and  lemons,  which  cannot  stand  the  cold  winters  of  the  Meseta, 
grow  in  abundance  to  the  south  of  it,  and  the  vine  reaches  a  higher 
state  of  perfection  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  country.  The 
wines  of  Jerez,  Malaga,  and  Alicante  alone  have  a  reputation  out- 
side of  Spain,  while  the  raisins  of  Malaga,  Almeria,  and  Ahcante 
are  well  known.  Sugar-cane  is  cultivated  in  places,  and  sugar- 
beet  has  become  an  important  crop  in  the  south,  where  it  is  grown 
especially  in  Granada,  Malaga,  and  Almeria.  Irrigation  is,  of 
course,  necessary,  but,  although  the  yield  of  beet  per  acre  is  higher 
than  on  the  unirrigated  lands  further  north,  the  sugar  content  is 
not  so  large.  Cotton  is  grown,  but  not  to  any  great  extent,  and 
among  other  products  are  the  banana,  the  prickly  pear,  and  esparto 
grass. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  the  region  is  great,  though  it  has  been,  as 

12 — (1326) 


178  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

yet,  only  partially  exploited.  Iron  ore  of  excellent  quality  is 
found  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  other  folded  ranges  of  the  south, 
and  is  exported  from  SeviUe,  Almeria,  Aguilas,  Cartagena, 
Garrucha,  and  Porman.  The  region  at  present  produces  about 
one-third  of  the  total  output  of  iron  ore  in  Spain,  and  will 
probably  produce  more  in  the  future,  as  considerable  deposits,  ^ 
which  are  as  yet  untouched,  are  known  to  exist.  The  slopes  of  the 
Sierra  Morena  are  also  rich  in  minerals.  In  the  province  of  Huelva 
are  the  Rio  Tinto  mines,  which  produce  the  greater  part  of  the 
copper  obtained  in  Spain.  Silver-lead  ores  are  worked  in 
Cordoba  and  Linares,  and  zinc  ore,  or  calamine,  is  obtained  a  few 
miles  from  Almeria.  SeviUe.  on  the  Guadalquivir,  about  70  miles 
from  its  mouth,  is  the  largest  town  of  the  region  and  conducts 
most  of  its  trade.  The  Alphonso  XIII  Canal  will,  when  completed,] 
improve  the  navigation  of  the  river  and  make  the  port  accessible! 
to  larger  vessels  than  hitherto,  though  constant  dredging  wiU  stil 
be  necessary.  The  town  itself  possesses  iron  foundries,  corl 
factories,  and  various  other  industries.  Cadiz,  which  has  been! 
almost  entirely  superseded  by  SeviUe,  is  mainly  engaged  in  th( 
evaporation  and  exportation  of  salt.  Malaga,  on  the  Mediterraneai 
seaboard,  has  similar  industries  to  Seville,  but  its  value  as  a  poi 
is  steadily  declining. 

The  Mediterranean  Region. — ^This  region  is  typicaUy  Mediter-* 
ranean  in  its  climatic  characteristics  and  economic  products.  The 
soil  is,  as  a  rule,  scanty,  and  in  many  places  cultivation  is  onl] 
possible  after  the  hiUsides  have  been  carefuUy  and  laboriousl] 
terraced.  The  rainfaU  is  light,  and  without  artificial  irrigatioi 
the  vine  and  olive  alone  would  flourish,  but,  by  means  of  irrigatioi 
canals,  advantage  is  taken  of  whatever  water  the  livers  contain 
and  Valencia  and  Catalonia,  which  are  naturally  among  the 
least  fertile  provinces  of  Spain,  are  two  of  the  most  productive 
in  the  country.  In  addition  to  the  vine  and  the  oUve,  orangesJ 
lemons,  and  other  fruits  are  raised  in  large  quantities.  The  mul-j 
berry,  too,  is  cultivated,  but  unfortunately  the  Spaniard  does  nol 
take  much  interest  in  the  silkworm,  and  the  manufacture  of  silkj 
which  was  once  in  a  flourishing  condition,  has  been  aUowed  t< 
decay.     Esparto  grass  is  also  grown. 

The  pursuits  of  the  people  are  in  the  main  agricultural,  bui 
Barcelona,  besides  being  the  chief  seaport  of  Spain,  is,  and  has  foi 


THE  IBERIAN   PENINSULA  179 

long  been,  the  centre  of  considerable  industrial  activity.  There, 
and  in  the  neighbouring  towns,  cotton  and  woollen  materials  are 
manufactured  on  an  extensive  scale,  and  linen  and  jute  goods 
and  electrical  machinery  are  also  made.  Valencia,  which  ranks 
next  in  size  to  Madrid  and  Barcelona,  is  mainly  engaged  in  the 
export  of  fruit. 

The  Ebro  Basin. — In  this  region  the  soil  is  in  many  places 
infertile  and  the  rainfall  is  hght.  The  winters  are  colder  than  along 
the  Mediterranean  coast,  and  the  orange  and  lemon  cannot  be 
grown.  The  chief  crops  are  therefore  oUves,  vines,  and  cereals, 
but  for  the  latter  irrigation  is  generally  necessary.  Saragossa, 
which  is  the  principal  town,  has  sugar  refineries  and  iron  and  steel 
works. 

The  Pyrenean  Region  is  of  but  httle  importance  from  the 
economic  point  of  view.  The  inhabitants  are  mainly  occupied 
in  pastoral  pursuits  and  in  forest  industries. 

Commerce. — For  the  five  years  1906-10  the  average  value  of  the 
exports  of  Spain  was  £40,000,000,  and  of  the  imports  £42,000,000. 
Mineral  ores  and  metals  account  for  over  30  per  cent,  of  the  total 
value  of  the  exports.  Iron  ore,  which  comes  first  in  importance, 
is  exported  mainly  to  the  United  Kingdom,  but  also  to  Germany. 
Lead  and  copper,  in  various  forms,  find  their  chief  market  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  but  are  also  sent  to  France  and  Germany,  and 
some  copper  goes  to  the  United  States.  Fruit  exports,  which  rank 
in  importance  next  to  mineral  ores  and  metals,  consist  of  almonds, 
grapes,  oranges,  raisins,  and  nuts.  Of  these,  oranges,  which  are  the 
most  important,  are  sent  to  the  United  Kingdom  and  various 
European  countries.  Wine  comes  next  to  fruit  in  value,  and  red 
wines  are  exported  to  France  and  Cuba ;  Malaga  wines  to  France 
and  the  United  Kingdom;  and  sherry  to  the  United  Kingdom. 
Among  other  exports  cotton  goods  are  sent  to  France,  Cuba,  and  the 
PhiHppines ;  animals,  chiefly  cattle,  to  Portugal ;  skins  and  hides  to 
France ;  cork  to  Italy ;  and  onions  and  esparto  grass  to  Great  Britain. 
The  United  Kingdom  holds  the  first  place  as  a  purchaser  of  Spanish 
produce  ;  it  is  followed  by  France,  Cuba,  Germany,  and  the  United 
States,  The  chief  imports  include  raw  cotton,  coal  and  coke,  chemi- 
cal products,  iron  and  steel  manufactures,  machinery,  wheat,  and 
timber.  The  bulk  of  the  raw  cotton  comes  from  the  United  States. 
Coal  and  coke  are  supplied  mainly  by  the  United  Kingdom,  but 


180  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

to  some  extent  by  Germany.  Chemicals  are  imported  from  Belgium 
and  the  United  Kingdom ;  and  iron  and  steel  manufactures  and 
machinery  from  the  United  Kingdom,  France,  Germany,  and 
Belgium.  The  wheat  is  mainly  of  Russian  origin,  while  the  timber 
comes  from  the  United  States. 

The  United  Kingdom  is  the  chief  importer  into  Spain,  but  is 
somewhat  closely  followed  by  France.  The  United  States  ranks 
third. 

Conclusion. — ^The  economic  development  of  Spain  has  been 
hindered  by  a  variety  of  circumstances.  The  infertile  nature  of 
much  of  the  soil,  the  want  of  sufficient  moisture,  and  the  difficulties 
of  communication,  are  all  serious  obstacles  to  progress.  Even 
more  important  are  poUtical  and  social  conditions.  The  glamour 
of  the  past  has  made  the  Spaniard  indifferent  to  the  realities 
of  the  present,  and  he  does  little  to  overcome  the  difficulties 
of  his  environment.  An  improvement  in  the  means  of  com- 
munication would  permit  the  exploitation  of  vast  mineral  sources 
hitherto  untouched  ;  irrigation  might  be  extended,  and  consider- 
able areas  at  present  of  little  value  might  be  rendered  fertile  ;  at 
the  same  time  the  methods  both  of  agriculture  and  manufacture 
might  be  considerably  improved. 

Portugal 

Northern  Portugal  belongs,  in  the  main,  to  the  same  block  of 
Archaean  rock  as  Galicia,  and  like  it  has  a  somewhat  diversified 
topography.  Cfimatic  conditions  are  favourable  to  the  growth 
of  maize  and  rye,  but  much  of  the  land  is  still  uncultivated,  and 
considerable  areas  are  devoted  to  pastoral  pursuits.  The  vine  is 
extensively  grown,  especially  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  Douro 
basin,  where  the  wines  known  as  port  are  produced.  The  mineral 
wealth  of  the  region  is  not  great.  A  little  anthracite  is  mined, 
and  wolfram,  of  which  there  are  considerable  quantities,  is  col- 
lected by  the  country  people  from  the  surface  of  the  land.  Portugal 
is  the  largest  producer  in  Europe  of  this  mineral,  which  is  used  in 
metallic  filament  lamps,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  a  particular 
kind  of  steel  which  remains  hard  even  at  very  high  temperatures. 
Dporto.  which  is  the  chief  town  of  Northern  Portugal,  is  situated 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Douro;  but  the  approach  to  the  town  is  a 
difficult  one,  and  much  of  its  trade  now  passes  through  the  harbour 


THE   IBERIAN    PENINSULA  181 

which  has  been  constructed  on  the  coast  at  Leixoes,  a  little  to  the 
north-west.  Oporto  itself  has  cotton  and  woollen  mills,  and  is 
also  engaged  in  trawling  and  in  the  export  of  wine. 

Southern  Portugal  is  mountainous  in  the  south  and  east,  but 
contains  large  areas  of  lowland  in  the  west,  ^^^leat  is  grown,  but 
not  in  sufficient  quantity  to  meet  the  home  demand,  and  rice  is 
cultivated,  especially  on  the  easily  irrigated  lands  about  the  lower 
Tagus.  The  vine  flourishes  round  Lisbon  and  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Tagus,  as  well  as  in  the  south  and  south-east ;  and  red  and 
white  wines  are  made,  largely  for  exportation  to  Brazil  and  the 
Portuguese  colonies.  The  cork-tree  is  extensively  grown  throughout 
Southern  Portugal,  but  the  chief  plantations  are  in  the  lowlands 
about  the  lower  Tagus.  The  raw  cork  is  collected  at  Lisbon  where 
it  is  prepared  for  export,  much  of  it  being  sent  abroad  in  the  form  of 
bottle  corks.  Portugal  now  produces  about  one-half  of  the  world's 
supply  of  cork.     Among  other  crops  are  olives,  lemons,  and  figs. 

Copper,  which  is  the  most  important  mineral  worked  at  present, 
is  found  in  various  parts  of  the  Meseta,  especially  at  Sao  Domingos, 
Aljustrel,  and  Serra  da  Caveira.  Lisbon  is  the  chief  port  of  the 
region.  It  has  iron  works,  shipbuilding,  and  woollen  manufactures. 
Setubal  is  actively  engaged  in  the  preservation  and  export  of 
sardines,  which  are  found  in  large  numbers  off  the  coast. 

Commerce. — Wine,  cork,  fish,  and  copper,  along  with  rubber 
and  cacao  obtained  from  the  Portuguese  colonies,  make  up  the  bulk 
of  the  exports.  The  imports  consist  of  coal  from  the  United 
Kingdom,  raw  cotton  from  the  United  States  and  Brazil,  wheat 
from  the  Argentine  and  the  United  States,  iron  and  steel  goods 
from  Great  Britain  and  Germany,  and  fish  from  Norway  and  the 
United  Kingdom.  The  average  official  value  of  the  exports  for 
the  years  1906-10  was  £7,000,000,  and  of  the  imports,  £14,000,000. 

Conclusion. — Portugal  is  still  in  a  very  backward  condition. 
The  methods  of  agriculture  are  generally  of  a  most  primitive 
description,  and  much  of  the  land  is  still  uncultivated.  Little  has 
been  done  to  develop  the  internal  resources  of  the  country.     Iron 

I  ore,  for  example,  is  everywhere  abundant,  but  up  to  the  present  has 
been  worked  only  to  a  slight  extent.  The  coastal  towns  alone,  as 
a  result  of  their  long  contact  with  the  outside  world,  are  more 

i  energetic,  and  there  the  chief  manufactures  of  the  country  are 
settled. 


182  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

Communications  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula. — Madrid,  which 
is  the  natural  meeting-place  of  routes  across  the  Meseta,  may  be 
regarded  as  the  centre  of  the  railway  system  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula. 
It  is  connected  with  the  French  railways  by  a  Hne  which  crosses 
the  Sierra  de  Guadarrama,  and,  after  passing  through  Valladolid 
and  Burgos,  descends  from  the  Meseta  by  the  Pass  of  Pancorbo, 
crosses  the  Ebro  at  Miranda  de  Ebro,  and  runs  to  San  Sebastian 
on  the  frontier.     From  this  hne  there  are  connections  with  the 
ports  of  Bilbao,  Santander,  and  Gijon,  and  from  Leon  on  the  last 
of  these  a  branch  breaks  off  and  goes  by  the  valleys  of  the  Sil  and 
the  Minho  to  Vigo,  while  near   the    confluence  of  these  rivers  a 
second  branch  strikes  off  to  the  north-west  for  Corunna.    Another 
route  from  the  capital  descends  into  the  valley  of  the  Ebro  at 
Saragossa  where  it  meets  a  line  which  follows  the  valley  of  that 
river   for  the  greater  part  of  the  way  from  Miranda  de  Ebro  to 
Tarragona  on  the  Mediterranean  seaboard.     The  south-east    sea- 
board is  connected  with  the  capital  by  hues  to  Valencia  ;  by  AlbacetC; 
to  Alicante,  Cartagena,  and  Aguilas  ;  and  to  Almeria.     From  near; 
Linares  on  the  last  of  these  a  railway  makes  use  of  the  valley  of 
the  Guadalquivir  to  go  to  Cordoba  (connected  with  Malaga  andj 
Gibraltar)  and  Seville  {connected  with  Cadiz  and  Huelva).     The 
ports  on  the  Mediterranean  from  Perpignan  as  far  south  as  Aguilasj 
are  Hnked  up  by  a  line  which  keeps  to  the  coast  for  the  greater] 
part  of  the  way.     To  Portugal  there  are  several  lines.     One  runs! 
westwards,  south  of  the  Sierra  de  Gredos,  to  Plasencia  where  itj 
bifurcates ;   one  branch  going  northwards  to  Salamanca,  and  then] 
crossing  over  into  the  valley  of  the  Douro  which  it  follows  to  Oporto,] 
and  the  other  going  westwards  into  the  valley  of  the  Tagus  whicl 
it  foUows  to  Lisbon.     From  Salamanca  a  line  runs  north  to  meet  thai 
from  Leon  to  Vigo,  and  from  a  junction  near  Caceres  (on  the  route 
to  Lisbon)  another  runs  south  to  Huelva.     Lisbon  is  connecte( 
with  Faro  in  the  south,  and  through  Oporto  and  Vigo  with  Santiagc 
in  the  north. 


CHAPTER    XVIII 

RUSSIA 

The  low  depression  which  runs  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Baltic, 
by  the  valleys  of  the  Dnieper  and  the  Pripet  and  the  plains  of 
the  Vistula,  separates  two  entirely  different  geographical  regions ; 
and  in  the  contrasts  between  them  in  regard  to  position  and 
configuration,  structure  and  geology,  climate  and  vegetation, 
must  be  sought  at  least  part  of  the  explanation  of  the  differences 
in  the  economic  development  of  Russia  and  Western  Europe 
respectively. 

The  Archaean  plateau  of  Scandinavia  is  continued  in  Finland, 
but  disappears  in  Russia  under  a  covering  of  sedimentary  rocks 
which  lie  horizontally,  since  they  have  not  been  submitted,  as  in 
Western  Europe,  to  the  forces  which  cause  mountain  folding.  These 
sedimentary  rocks  have  been  gradually  worn  down  by  denudation, 
and  nowhere  exceed  a  height  of  1,150  feet.  There  are,  nevertheless, 
certain  broad  distinctions  in  the  topography  and  characteristics 
of  the  vast  area  covered  by  European  Russia.  Finland,  and  the 
country  lying  to  the  west  of  a  line  drawn  from  the  Prussian  frontier 
of  Poland  to  Archangel,  by  Lake  Ilmen  and  east  of  Lake  Onega, 
present  the  appearance  of  a  recently  glaciated  country,  the  land 
being  covered  with  lakes  of  glacial  origin,  and  the  river  systems 
being  badly  defined.  Between  this  region  and  a  wavy  line  which 
runs  from  Kiev  to  Kasan  the  land  has  also  been  glaciated,  but  at  a 
more  remote  period  so  that  the  river  systems  have  become  more 
clearly  articulated,  and  the  lakes  have  disappeared.  To  the 
south  of  this  glaciated  territory  lies  the  Black  Earth  country, 
a  region  enriched  partly  by  the  loess  deposited  by  the  melting 
ice-sheet,  partly  by  the  organic  matter  derived  from  centuries  of 
rich  vegetation.  The  Black  Earth  passes  gradually  in  the  south 
and  south-east  into  the  true  steppe,  where  the  salinity  of  the  soil, 
due  to  the  comparatively  recent  disappearance  of  the  sea,  and  the 
aridity  of  the  climate,  render  the  cultivation  of  the  land  impossible. 
In  the  east,  Archaean  rocks  again  appear  in  the  Urals,  while  the 
Crimea  may  be  regarded  as  a  continuation  of  the  Caucasus. 
Climatic    conditions,    too,    differentiate    Russia    from    Western 

183 


184  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

Europe.  On  the  great  lowlands,  far  distant  from  the  modifying 
influence  of  the  sea  and  unprotected  by  mountains,  the  heat  of 
summer  and  the  cold  of  winter  are  alike  extreme.  During  the 
latter  season  the  isotherms  run  from  north-west  to  south-east,  and 
in  January  range  from  zero  to  freezing  point  on  the  Fahrenheit 
scale;  while  in  the  former  they  run  from  south-west  to  north-east, 
and  in  July  range  from  46°  F.  to  80°  F.  The  rainfall,  which  occurs 
chiefly  in  summer,  is  heaviest  in  the  west  and  centre,  where  it  is 
from  20  to  24  inches.  Outwards  from  this  region,  it  decreases  in 
all  directions,  and  in  the  far  north  and  in  the  south-east  it  is  less 
than  10  inches. 

The  various  vegetation  zones  of  Russia  are  also  of  considerable 
significance  in  its  economic  development.  Along  the  Arctic,  and  as 
far  south  as  the  66th  or  65th  parallel,  stretches  the  tundra.  South 
of  this,  and  coinciding  in  a  general  way  with  the  remainder  of  the 
glaciated  area,  lies  the  now  partly  cleared  forest  region,  characterised 
by  the  pine,  the  fir,  and  the  birch  in  the  north,  and  in  the  south 
by  deciduous  trees  of  the  Central  European  Forest,  such  as  the 
maple,  the  linden,  and  the  oak.  Further  to  the  south,  the  Black  Soil 
and  fertile  steppe  region  is  generally  unsuited  to  the  growth  of  trees, 
but  particularly  favourable  to  that  of  cereals  and  grass,  while  in  the 
extreme  south-east  the  vegetation  is  of  the  scantiest  description. 

Natural  Regions. — ^The  tundra,  the  forest,  and  the  steppe  lands 
of  Russia  obviously  form  three  great  natural  regions  into  which 
the  country  may  be  divided.  But  the  Baltic  lands  belonging  to 
the  more  recently  glaciated  area  may  be  considered  apart  from  the 
remainder  of  the  forest  region,  partly  because  of  their  relations  to 
the  Baltic,  and  partly  because  of  the  effect  of  their  recent  glaciation 
upon  their  development.  The  remainder  of  the  forest  zone  falls 
into  two  regions  :  that  north  of  the  60th  parallel,  where  compara- 
tively little  agriculture  is  possible ;  anH^lEat  to  the^uth  of  it, 
where  much  of  the  land  has  been  permanently  cleared.  The  Black 
Soil  and  fertile  steppe,  the  infertile  steppe,  the  Crimea,  and  the 
4Jfal-must  also,  because  of  their  geographical  peculiarities,  be 
considered  as  separate  natural  regions.  The  coalfields^  round 
Moscow  and  in  south-west  Poland,  and  the  coal  and  iron  deposits 
of  South- Atresia,  are  the  centres  of  industrial  areas  which,  because 
of  their  importance,  require  to  be  treated  apart  from  the  regions 
in  which  they  are  found. 


RUSSIA  185 

The  tundra  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  mention.  The  only  inha- 
bitants are  a  few  Samoyeds  and  Lapps  who,  with  their  reindeer, 
support  a  precarious  existence. 

The  Baltic  Lands  may  be  divided  into  several  distinct  regions. 
Finland,  which  consists  of  a  granitic  mass,  has  a  poor  and  infertile 
soil.  Forests  cover  about  two-thirds  of  the  whole  area,  while  only 
one-fortieth  of  it  is  under  crops,  and  one-twentieth  is  pasture  land. 
The  chief  occupations  of  the  people,  who  number  2,500,000,  are 
forestry,  agriculture,  dairy-farming,  and  fishing.  Timber,  wood- 
pulp,  and  paper,  along  with  dairy  produce,  are  exported,  mainly 
through  Helsingfors  and  Abo. 

The  Lake  Region,  containing  the  governments  of  Olonetz, 
Novgorod,  St.  Petersburg,  Pskov,  and  Vitebsk,  resembles  Finland 
in  many  respects,  but  a  greater  proportion  of  the  land  is  cultivated, 
and  agriculture  is  the  chief  pursuit  of  the  people.  The  most 
important  crop  is  flax,  the  moist  cUmate  being  particularly  favour- 
able to  its  growth,  and  Pskov  is  the  chief  flax-growing  district  in  the 
Empire.  The  cutting  of  timber  and  the  cultivation  of  grain  also 
give  employment  to  a  considerable  number  of  people,  but  the  cereal 
production  is  unable  to  meet  the  demand  of  the  region,  which,  as  a 
result  of  its  position  on  the  Baltic,  has  an  importance  and  popula- 
tion greater  than  its  other  geographical  conditions  would  warrant. 
The  growth  of  St.  Petersburg  is  partly,  no  doubt,  the  result  of 
poHtical  considerations,  but  its  position  in  relation  to  north-west 
Europe  has  undoubtedly  been  the  chief  factor  in  its  progress ;  and 
manufactures  naturally  developed  there  and  in  other  towns  where 
coal  and  raw  material  could  easily  be  obtained.  St.  Petersburg 
has  engineering  and  textile  works,  and  Narva,  aided  by  water- 
power,  manufactures  linen  and  cotton  goods.  The  chief  ports  are 
St.  Petersburg  and  Cronstadt,  which  export  timber  from  the  Lake 
Region  and  grain  from  various  parts  of  Russia,  while  coal  and  raw 
cotton  form  the  most  valuable  of  the  imports. 

The  Baltic  Provinces,  Esthonia,  Livonia,  and  Courland,  to- 
gether with  a  small  part  of  the  surrounding  country,  form  the 
third  division  of  the  Baltic  Lands.  The  soil  is  generally  poor, 
and,  as  agriculture  is  the  main  pursuit  of  the  people,  the  density 
of  population  is  not  great.  In  addition  to  agriculture,  dairying 
and  timber-cutting  are  important  occupations.  Manufactures  are 
followed  in  the  towns  of  the  coast  which  also  serve  as  ports.     Riga, 


186  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

along  with  Pernau,  Windau,  and  Libau,  exports  flax,  timber, 
dairy  produce,  and  eggs.  Windau  and  Libau  are  open  during  the 
whole  year,  and  are  thus  of  special  importance  in  shipping  perishable 
goods.     Reval  imports  cotton  from  the  United  States. 

The  Northern  Forest  region  Hes  between  the  60th  and  65th 
parallels,  and  is  almost  entirely  covered  by  trees  of  the  northern 
forest.  Climatic  conditions  being  severe,  agriculture  is  carried  on 
only  in  the  south  to  a  limited  extent  and  by  primitive  methods 
A  piece  of  land  is  cleared,  cultivated  continuously  with  flax  or  the 
hardier  cereals  for  a  number  of  years,  and  then  allowed  to  return 
to  forest  again.  Cattle-rearing  in  the  basin  of  the  Northern  Dwina,! 
fishing  along  the  shores  of  the  White  Sea  and  along  the  banks  of  the 
rivers  falling  into  it,  and  timber-cutting,  are  among  the  principal 
occupations  of  the  people.  Archangel  is  the  port  through  which 
much  of  the  trade  of  the  region  is  carried  on,  but  it  is  only  open 
during  the  summer  and  autumn  months. 

The  Southern  Forest  region  has,  in  many  cases,  been  per^ 
manently  cleared,  and  agriculture  is  the  chief  pursuit  of  its  inhabit- 
ants. The  western  part  of  this  region  is,  with  the  exception  of  the 
country  round  Moscow,  the  most  densely  populated,  while  in  the 
east,  where  forests  still  cover  two-thirds  of  the  land,  the  population 
is  small.  The  crops  include  flax,  rye,  barley,  oats,  and  potatoes 
but  on  the  whole  the  agricultural  produce  of  the  region  is  not 
sufficient  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  people,  and  food  has  to  be  im- 
ported. The  exports,  apart  from  manufactures,  are  timber,  flax, 
hemp,  and  linseed. 

The  Moscow  Industrial  region,  situated  in  the  central  pari 
of  the  Southern  Forest  zone,  has  developed  largely  as  the  result  o; 
geographical  conditions.  Its  position  in  the  centre  of  the  country 
whence  the  great  rivers  flow  out  in  all  directions,  gave  it  nodalit; 
from  an  early  period ;  the  infertility  of  the  soil  rendered  other  pur 
suits  than  its  cultivation  necessary  for  the  surplus  population 
the  neighbouring  flax-growing  area  provided  the  raw  material  firs 
in  request ;  the  forests  supplied  the  fuel ;  the  Black  Soil  region  t 
the  south  secured  a  food  supply  and  guaranteed  one  market,  whil 
the  Oka  and  the  Volga  offered  a  route  to  others  more  distant.  I 
place  of  wood  as  fuel,  coal  is  now  obtained  from  the  neighbouri 
mines,  but,  as  the  quality  is  poor,  much  is  imported  from  the  Donet 
basin.     The  manufacture  of  cotton  is  now  the  most  importam 


RUSSIA  187 

textile  pursuit  of  the  Moscow  region,  which  contains  over  60  per 
cent,  of  the  8,600,000  spindles  in  the  country,  and  accounts  for  over 
66  per  cent,  of  the  annual  product  (valued  in  1910  at  £60,000,000). 
The  raw  material  is  obtained  partly  from  various  districts  within 
the  empire,  and  partly  from  abroad,  the  United  States  being  the 
chief  source  of  supply.  Linen  and  woollen  goods  are  also  manu- 
factured in  this  region.  Moscow  itself  is  the  centre  of  the  engineering 
industry  of  Russia,  and  produces  much  of  the  machinery  used  in 
spinning  and  weaving,  flour  milling,  sugar  refining,  railway 
construction,  and  agriculture. 

South-western  Poland. — ^The  greater  part  of  Poland  falls  within 
the  Southern  Forest  region,  but  in  the  south-west  an  important 
industrial  area  owes  its  existence  partly  to  the  I^ombrowa  coalfield, 
which  lies  within  it,  and  partly  to  proximity  to  similar  industrial 
areas  in  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary.  The  Dombrowa  coal- 
field, which  is  continuous  with  that  in  the  adjacent  parts  of  Silesia, 
has  an  annual  output  of  nearly  6,000,000  metric  tons,  or  rather  less 
than  one-fourth  of  the  whole  output  of  European  Russia ;  and, 
though  the  product  is  only  of  moderate  quaHty,  it  supplies  the  fuel 
required  in  the  manufactures  of  Poland.  Iron  is  also  found,  but  it 
is  of  low  grade,  and  most  of  the  ore  used  is  imported  from  South 
Russia.  From  8  to  10  per  cent,  of  the  pig-iron  made  in  the  country 
comes  from  Poland,  the  chief  centres  of  production  being  round 
Sosnowice.K  The  textile  industries  are  of  considerable  import- 
ance, and  cotton  is  manufactured  in  and  around  LodZj'^vhere 
is  to  be  found  over  one-seventh  of  the  total  number  of  spindles  in 
Russia.  Czenstochowa,  Lodz,  Tomaszow,  and  other  towns  are 
engaged  in  the  production  of  woollen  goods,  the  raw  material 
being  largely  of  domestic  but  partly  of  foreign  origin.  Other 
industries  of  the  region  include  the  spinning  and  weaving  of  linen 
and  jute,  brewing  and  distilling,  the  manufacture  of  flour,  and  the 
preparation  of  timber  for  export.  Warsaw,  which  is  the  chief 
centre  of  trade  between  Russia  and  Western  Europe,  is  also  a 
large  manufacturing  town  engaged  in  the  production  of  articles 
of  many  different  kinds. 

The  Black  Soil  region,  including  the  fertile  steppes,  is  the  great 
agricultural  area  of  Russia,  and  its  western  section  is  the  most 
densely  populated  part  of  the  country  with  the  exception  of  Poland 
and  the  district  round  Moscow.     The  fertiHty  of  the  soil,   the 


188  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

facility  with  which  it  can  be  cultivated,  and  the  favourable  climate, 
have  led  to  the  large  production  of  wheat  in  this  region,  which 
may  be  divided  into  three  belts,  running  from  south-west  to  north- 
east. In  the  most  northerly  belt  the  area  under  wheat  is  less 
than  that  under  all  other  crops,  which  include  beet  (chiefly  in  the 
west),  barley,  oats,  and  rye.  The  central  zone,  including  the 
governments  of  Kherson,  Ekaterinoslav,  Don  Territory,  and  Samara, 
devotes  about  one-half  of  its  cultivated  area  to  wheat ;  while  the 
southern  belt,  in  which  are  the  governments  of  Kuban,  Stavropol, 
Astrakhan,  and  Orenburg,  has  wheat  on  60  per  cent,  of  its  cultivated 
land.  "The  dry,  warm  climate  of  the  south-east  of  Russia  is 
obviously  one  reason  for  the  concentration  of  wheat  in  this  region  ; 
but,  although  it  is  grown  under  favourable  conditions,  the  yield  per 
acre  is  low,  and  for  the  ten  years,  1901-10,  the  average  did  not 
exceed  ten  bushels.  The  reasons  for  this  must  be  sought  for  in  a 
variety  of  conditions  which  affect  Russian  agriculture  generally. 
One-third  of  the  land  is  held  by  the  mirs,  or  village  communities, 
and  the  arable  parts  of  it  are  subject  to  re-allocation  from  time  to 
time  among  the  individuals  or  families  constituting  the  mir.  Such  a 
system  is  absolutely  antagonistic  to  the  practice  of  sound  agricul- 
ture ;  and  it  is  satisfactory  to  note  that  it  is  gradually  becoming  less 
general,  as  a  result,  partly  of  the  wealthier  farmers  opposing 
re-allocation,  partly  of  arrangements  having  been  made  by  which 
government  permission  may  be  given  to  individuals  to  withdraw 
from  the  mir,  and  partly  of  the  extension  of  agriculture  into 
regions,  especially  in  the  south-east,  where  the  mir  does  not  exist. 

The  three-field  system  of  agriculture,  which  is  the,  most  prevalent 
in  Russia,  is  also  unfavourable  to  the  full  development  of  the 
land.  Under  it  a  winter  crop,  such  as  rye,  is  sown  one  year,  a  spring 
crop,  such  as  wheat  or  oats,  the  second,  while  during  the  third 
the  ground  lies  fallow.  In  the  less  densely  populated  parts  of  the 
Black  Soil  region  a  method  analogous  to  the  forest  system  of  the 
north  is  pursued,  the  steppe  being  ploughed  and  continuously 
cultivated  for  several  years  till  the  land  is  exhausted,  after  which 
it  is  allowed  to  become  derelict.  With  the  gradual  increase  of 
population,  these  systems,  both  of  which  are  exceedingly  wasteful, 
are  steadily  being  replaced  by  one  of  rotation  of  crops. 

When  the  poverty  of  the  peasant,  the  primitive  implements  to 
which  his  poverty  condemns  him,  and  his  ignorance  of  sound 


RUSSIA  189 

agricultural  methods,  are  taken  into  consideration,  it  is  not  a  matter 
of  surprise  that  the  yield  from  the  lands  of  the  peasantry  is  lower 
than  from  the  lands  of  the  Crown,  the  nobles,  and  the  towns.  On 
the  other  hand,  within  recent  years,  the  Zemstvos  (provincial  and 
district  assemblies,  constituted  on  an  electoral  basis)  have  done 
much  to  enable  the  peasants  to  buy  agricultural  machinery  and 
to  teach  them  modern  methods  of  husbandry.  It  is  probably  due 
in  part  to  their  influence  that  the  export  of  wheat  from  European 
Russia,  which  for  a  time  showed  signs  of  rapidly  declining,  has 
risen  again  to  its  former  level  and  during  the  years  1906-10  averaged 
over  3,700,000  tons  per  annum.  The  greater  part  of  this  export 
took  place  from  ports  on  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Azov,  to  which 
the  wheat  was  brought  by  river,  railway,  and  sometimes  even  by 
wagon. 

Among  other  crops  of  the  Black  Soil  region  are  maize  and  beet, 
grown  chiefly  in  the  south-western  governments,  where  there  is 
sufficient  precipitation.  Rye  and  barley  also  cover  considerable 
areas. 

The  South  Russian  Industrial  bsgiqn  may  be  considered, 
apart  from  the  Black  Soil,  as  it  owes  its  importance  to  the  large 
supplies  of  coal  and  iron  which  it  contains.  The  coal  occurs  in  the 
Donetz  basin,  which  includes  the  southern  portion  of  the  govern- 
ment of  Kharkov,  the  eastern  portion  of  that  of  Ekaterinoslav, 
and  the  western  part  of  the  Don  Cossack  province.  The  quality 
varies  in  different  parts  of  the  field  from  Ugnite  to  anthracite, 
but  it  is  bituminous  coal  which  is  chiefly  worked.  The  total 
production  of  the  Donetz  region  has  been  increasing  rapidly ;  in 
1898  it  was  less  than  7,500,000  tons,  but  thirteen  years  later  it 
exceeded  19,500,000  tons.  The  coal  is  extensively  used  in  the 
metallurgical  industries  of  South  Russia  ;  large  quantities  are  sent 
to  the  Moscow  Industrial  region  ;  some  goes  to  the  Baltic  by  ship  ; 
and  it  is  proposed  to  build  a  new  railway  from  the  Donetz  field  to 
facilitate  the  trade  with  the  St.  Petersburg  district. 

Deposits  of  iron  ore  are  found  in  the  vicinity  of  Krivoi  Rog,  on 
the  boundary  of  the  governments  of  Kherson  and  Ekaterinoslav, 
where  it  is  estimated  that  there  are  at  least  82,000,000  tons  of 
haematite  and  red  haematite.  In  the  east  of  the  Crimea,  near 
Kertch,  also,  there  is  beUeved  to  exist  700,000,000  tons  of  ore  similar 
in  character  to  that  obtained  from  Luxemburg.     In  addition  to 


190  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

the  proximity  of  coal,  these  fields  are  favoured  by  the  presence  of 
large  supplies  of  manganese  ores  near  Nikopol  in  South  Russia, 
and  by  the  ease  with  which  metallic  fluxes  and  building  materials 
can  be  obtained.  The  growth  of  the  industry  here  has  also  been 
encouraged  by  the  development  of  railway  communications,  heavy 
import  duties  on  iron  from  abroad,  the  influx  of  foreign  capital 
and  labour,  and  the  adoption  of  modern  methods  of  manufacturing 
iron.  During  the  last  few  years  the  output  has  not  been  sufficient 
to  meet  the  demands  of  the  country,  and  it  has  been  found  necessary 
to  reduce  the  duties  on  imported  iron.  At  present  the  South 
Russian  fields  produce  over  two-thirds  of  the  output  of  pig-iron  in 
the  whole  country. 

The  chief  ports  of  the  agricultural  and  industrial  regions  of 
South  Russia  are  situated  on  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Azov 
Odessa  still  has  the  largest  trade,  and  imports  considerable  quantitiei 
of  oil,  raw  cotton,  tea,  and  coffee,  but  it  has  lost  much  of  its  grai 
trade  owing  to  the  improved  access  to  Nikolaiev  at  the  mouth  o; 
the  Bug,  and  Kherson  at  the  mouth  of  the  Dnieper.     On  the  S 
of  Azov,  Mariupol,  Taganrog,  and  Rostov-on-Don  are  all  largel 
engaged  in  exporting  cereals. 

The  REGiQjiLOJc-.THE  GMJ.CASiiS  is  noted  for  its  mineral  wealt 
and 'more  especially  for  its  stores  of  mineral  oil,  which  are  foun 
chiefly  around  Baku  in  the  Apsheron  Peninsula  on  the  Caspian  Se; 
and  at  Grozny  in  Cis-Caucasia.  From  the  crude  petroleum  refinei 
in  these  districts  both  illuminating  and  lubricating  oils  are  obtained] 
while  from  the  residuum  is  manufactured  a  valuable  fuel  used  on  al 
the  steamers  plying  on  the  Caspian  and  lower  and  middle  Volg; 
The  Russian  wells  produced  during  the  five  years  1907-11  one-fiftl 
of  the  world's  supply  of  crude  petroleum,  practically  the  whole  o; 
which  came  from  the  region  under  consideration.  Baku  hai 
suffered  greatly  within  recent  years  from  political  disturbances 
and  the  output  of  many  of  the  wells  is  diminishing,  so  that  th< 
present  condition  of  the  industry  is  somewhat  unstable.  A 
Grozny,  on  the  other  hand,  the  production  is  steadily  increasing 
and  now  amounts  to  over  one-tenth  of  the  total  Russian  output 
Batum,  on  the  Black  Sea,  is  the  chief  port  for  Baku,  with  which  ii 
is  connected  both  by  railway  and  by  pipe  line.  The  Caucasui 
region  also  contains  copper,  manganese  ore,  iron,  and  coal,  but  ver] 
little  has  as  yet  been  done  for  their  development. 


RUSSIA  191 

The  Ural  Mountains  form  another  great  mineral  reserve  of 
Russia,  in  which  are  found  gold,  platinum,  copper,  iron,  and  coal, 
as  well  as  other  substances.  The  production  of  iron  is  the  most 
important  industry  of  the  region;  and  the  Ural  works,  with  about 
20  per  cent,  of  the  national  output,  rank  next  to  those  of  South 
Russia  in  this  respect.  There  is,  however,  a  great  contrast  in  the 
methods  employed  in  the  two  districts.  The  Ural  is  dependent 
on  wood  for  fuel,  the  labour  and  capital  is  entirely  Russian,  the 
processes  are  old-fashioned,  and  it  is  only  recently,  and  to  a  limited 
extent,  that  railways  have  supplied  the  means  of  transport.  Of 
the  world's  supply  of  platinum  about  95  per  cent,  is  obtained  from 
the  Ural,  chiefly  from  the  government  of  Perm.  ^^ 

Communications. — Before  the  introduction  of  railways  the  rivers 
of  European  Russia  formed  the  chief  means  of  transport  within  the 
country,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  they  were  closed  by  ice 
for  a  period  which  varied,  according  to  the  position  of  their  basins, 
from  three  to  six  months  each  year.  Among  the  more  important 
of  these  rivers  are  the  Volga,  the  Dnieper,  the  Don,  the  Vistula, 
the  Niemen,  the  Neva,  and  the  Dwina,  but  it  is  estimated  that  the 
total  navigable  waterways  of  European  Russia  have  a  length  of 
about  50,000  miles,  though  only  16,000  miles  are  suitable  for  steam- 
ships. The  basin  of  the  Volga  is  connected  with  that  of  the  Neva 
by  three  canals ;  while  the  Dnieper  is  connected  with  the  Western 
Dwina,  the  Niemen  and  the  Vistula. 

European  Russia  possesses  about  35,000  miles  of  railway. 
Moscow  may  be  regarded  as  the  geographical  centre  of  the  system, 
and  from  it  lines  radiate  in  all  directions,  among  the  most  important 
being  those  which  connect  the  former  capital  with  Warsaw,  whence 
there  are  connections  with  Berlin;  with  Odessa  and  other  ports  on 
the  Black  Sea;  with  St.  Petersburg,  Archangel,  Siberia,  and  Turkestan. 
From  St.  Petersburg  there  are  several  important  lines  ;  one  runs 
by  Viborg  to  Helsingfors  and  Abo  with  connections  to  other  parts 
of  Finland ;  another  connects  the  capital  with  the  ports  on  the 
Baltic  ;  a  third  goes  by  Vilna  where  it  divides,  one  branch  going  to 
Warsaw,  and  the  other  to  Eydtkuhnen  on  the  Prussian  frontier, 
1  where  it  meets  the  line  from  BerHn  by  way  of  Konigsberg.  The 
capital  is  also  connected  with  the  trans-Siberian  railway  at  Chelia- 
binsk  by  a  line  which  runs  eastwards  through  Perm  and  Ekaterin- 
burg.    A  railway  from  the  latter  town  to  Tinmen  is  being  continued 


192 


ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 


to  Omsk,  while  a  line  from    Samara    by  Orenburg  connects  the 
trans-Siberian  and  trans-Caspian  railways. 

Commerce  of  the  Russian  Empire. — ^For  the  five  years  1906-10 
the  value  of  the  exports  of  the  Russian  Empire  averaged 
£127.000,000,  and  of  the  imports  £96,000,000.  The  following  table 
indicates  the  leading  features  of  each  :  — 


Exports 

In  i  MILLIONS. 

Percen- 
tage. 

In 

Imports. 

£  MILLIONS. 

Perce > 

lAGE. 

Grain 

..  58-67 

46-2 

Raw  cotton 

10-84 

11-3 

Timber 

..   1219 

9-6 

Tea      . . 

.     7-10 

7-4 

Flax 

. .     6-35 

50 

Metals 

.     4-41 

4-6 

Eggs 

. .     609 

4-8 

Wool 

.     3-84 

4-0 

Butter 

. .     4-95 

3-9 

Machinery 

.     3-79 

3-9 

Coal  and  coke . 

.     3-26 

3-4 

Rubber 

.     2-97 

3-1 

Wheat  is  sent  to  Great  Britain  and  Germany,  which  also  take  the 
bulk  of  the  timber.  The  United  Kingdom,  France,  and  Belgium 
consume  most  of  the  flax  exported.  Eggs  and  butter  find  theil 
chief  market  in  the  United  Kingdom.  Of  the  imports,  raw  cotton 
is  supphed  by  the  United  States,  India,  and  Egypt,  tea  by  China 
and  India,  and  metals  and  machinery  mainly  by  Germany.  Coa 
and  coke  are  imported  from  Great  Britain  and  to  some  extent  from 
Germany.     Rubber  is  purchased  on  the  EngHsh  market. 


ASIA 


13— (1326) 


CHAPTER   XIX 

ASIA 

Physical  Structure. — The  continent  of  Asia,  which  has  an  area 
generally  estimated  at  about  17,250,000  square  miles,  occupies 
nearly  one- third  of  the  land  surface  of  the  globe.  The  most  pro- 
minent feature  in  the  physical  structure  of  this  vast  area  is  the  great 
system  of  mountains  and  plateaus  which  extends  across  it  from  west 
to  east.  This  system  is  much  contracted  in  the  region  of  the 
Pamirs,  which  practically  divide  it  into  two  parts,  the  eastern 
part,  however,  being  much  more  extensive  than  the  western.  To 
the  west  of  the  Pamirs,  the  system  is  again  contracted  in  the  Armen- 
ian Knot  where  meet  the  Pontus  and  Taurus  ranges,  which  enclose 
between  them  the  plateau  of  Asia  Minor.  This  plateau  has  a  height 
varying  from  2,000  feet  in  the  wefet  to  about  6,000  feet  in  the  east. 
The  Taurus  mountains,  on  the  south  of  the  plateau,  rise  in  places 
to  over  10,000  feet,  but  the  Pontus  range  on  the  north  is  somewhat 
lower  and  more  irregular.  To  the  east  of  the  Armenian  Knot, 
where  Mount  Ararat  is  over  17,000  feet  above  sea-level,  the  fold 
ranges  of  Asia  again  diverge  to  enclose  the  plateau  of  Iran.  In 
the  north  are  the  Elburz  Mountains  which  curve  round  the  southern 

,  extremity  of  the  Caspian  Sea  and  are  continued  through  the  high- 
lands of  North  Afghanistan  eastwards  to  the  Pamirs,  while  to  the 
south  the  Kurdistan  Highlands,  the  Zagros  Mountains,  the  South 

j  Persian  ranges,  and  the  Sulaiman  Mountains  extend  from  Armenia 
to  the  Hindu  Kush  and  the  Pamirs.     These  various  ranges  differ 

i  greatly  in  height.     Mount  Demavend,  in  the  Elburz,  is  over  18,000 

I  feet,  while  in  the  Hindu  Kush  the  peaks  rise  to  over  25,000  feet. 

Ijln  the  southern  loop  the  mountains  are  lower,  but  ever5rwhere 
present  considerable  barriers  to  communication.  The  plateau  of 
Iran,  which  has  an  average  height  of  about  3,000  feet,  contains 
two  basins  of  inland  drainage,  that  of  Iran  in  Persia  and  that  of 
Seistan  in  Afghanistan.  To  the  north  of  the  plateaus  of  Asia  Minor 
and  Iran,  and  of  the  mountain  ranges  which  border  them,  is  a 
region  of  relative  depression,  occupied  by  the  Black  Sea,  the  valley 
of  the  Kura,  and  the  Caspian.  This  region  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Caucasus,  which  are  continued  by  the  Kopet  Dagh,  east  of 

195 


196  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

the  Caspian,  to  the  highlands  of  North  Afghanistan.  The  Caucasus 
and  the  Kopet  Dagh  form,  on  the  west  of  the  Pamirs,  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  Asiatic  mountain  system. 

East  of  the  Pamirs,  which  consist  of  a  series  of  high  valleys 
separated  by  still  loftier  mountain  ranges,  the  same  distribution  of 
land  forms  is  continued  but  on  a  much  more  extensive  scale.    The 
plateau  of  Tibet,  much  of  which  has  an  elevation  ranging  from 
14,000  to  17,000  feet,  is  buttressed  on  the  south  by  the  greatest 
mountain  range  in  the  world,  the  Himalayas,  in  which  the  passes  are 
from  17,000  to  19,000  feet  above  sea-level.    The  Himalayan  fold 
is  continued  southwards  in  the  Naga  and  Arakan  Yoma  hills  of 
Burma  and  the  Andaman  and  Nicobar  Islands,  and  then  eastwards 
through  Sumatra  and  Java.    To  the  east  of  this  fold,  other  ranges 
running  southwards,  apparently  from  the  Tibetan  plateau,  separate 
the  various  river  systems  of  Indo-China  from  one  another.    On  the 
north  the  Tibetan  plateau  is  bordered  by  the  Kwen-lun  Mountains. 
About    latitude    100°E.    these    bifurcate,    one    branch    running^ 
eastwards  into  China  as  the  Tsin-Ung  Mountains,  and  the  otherj 
running  north-east  as  the  Inshan  and  Khingan  Mountains.    T 
the  north  of  these  various  ranges  the  area  of  relative  depression  is: 
represented  by  the  basin  of  the  Tarim  in  the  west,  and  by  th^ 
Mongohan  plateau,  with  the  desert  of  Gobi,  in  the  east.    Th 
folded  Tian  Shan  enclose  the  Tarim  basin  on  the  north,  whil 
further  east  the  MongoHan  plateau  is  bordered  by  a  series  of  ancien 
highlands  which  include  the  Altai,  the  Sayan,  and  the  Yablonoi  an 
Stanovoi  Mountains.    These  present  a  steep  escarpment  to  th^ 
Siberian  Lowlands,  and  form,  to  the  east  of  the  Pamirs,  the  norther 
Hmit  of  the  Asiatic  mountain  system.     On  the  south-east  th 
Inshan  and  Khingan  ranges  overlook  the  lowlands  of  North  Chin 
and  Manchuria,  while  to  the  south  of  the  Tsin-ling  Mountains  lie 
the  ancient  massif  of  South  China.     Both  in  Manchuria  and  i 
South  China  the  hills  have  been  formed  by  the  fracturing  of  an| 
ancient  land  mass. 

The  second  great  physical  region  of  Asia  is  the  Northern  Low-j 
land,  which  everywhere  extends  from  the  borders  of  the  mid- world 
mountain  system  to  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  This  lowland, 
which  is  practically  continuous  with  that  of  Northern  Europe,  has 
its  greatest  breadth  in  the  west,  and  gradually  becomes  narrower 
towards  the  north-east.     In  the  west,  also,  its  altitude  is  less  (the 


i 


198  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

districts  around  the  Caspian  are  below  sea-level),  while  in  the  north- 
east it  rises  to  a  height  of  1,700  feet.  This  difference  in  altitude  is 
partly  due  to  differences  in  geological  structure,  the  western  section 
being  of  much  later  date  than  the  eastern.  The  Caspian  and  the  Sea 
of  Aral  are  in  regions  of  inland  drainage,  and  most  of  the  land  around 
them  is  covered  with  shifting  sands.  In  the  basins  of  the  Ob  and 
the  Irtysh  recent  alluvium  is  the  prevailing  formation,  though  in 
places  older  rocks  come  to  the  surface.  Further  east,  Palaeozoic 
with  some  Secondary  rocks  prevail  over  the  greater  part  of  the 
country. 

In  the  south,  the  mid-world  mountain  system  is  separated  by  the 
great  alluvial  valleys  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  and  the  Indus 
and  Ganges,  from  the  ancient  plateau  lands  of  Arabia  and  Southern 
India.    These  two  plateaus,  which  seldom  exceed  6,000  feet  ii 
height,  are  composed  of  ancient  rocks,  and  seem  to  have  remainec 
above    sea-level    for    the    greater  part  of   the   geological  period 
In  places  they  have  been  considerably  affected  by  volcanic  action 
'       Climate. — Only  a  brief  account  of  the  general  conditions  whicl 
determine  the  climate  of  Asia  need  be  attempted  at  present,  as  i 
will  be  necessary  later  to  examine  in  some  detail  the  climati 
characteristics  of  those  regions  which  are  most  important  from  th 
economic  point  of  view. 

Among  the  factors  which  have  to  be  considered  are  the  grea 
size  of  the  continent,  the  situation  of  the  whole  of  it  within  th 
northern  hemisphere  and  of  the  most  of  it  outside  of  the  tropics 
the  great  system  of  mountains  and  plateaus  by  which  it  is  traverse 
and  the  relation  of  these  to  the  surrounding  regions,  and  the  exist 
ence  of  the  African  land  mass  on  the  south-west,  and  of  the  Indi? 
\  and  Pacific  Oceans  on  the  south  and  east. 

During  the  winter  months  the  greater  part  of  Asia  is  an  area 
low  temperature,   and  the  coldest  known  region  on  earth  is  i^ 
north-east  Siberia  where,  at  Verkhoyansk,  the  mean  temperati 
in  January  is  — 60°F.     Partly  as  a  result  of  the  great  cold,  an^ 
partly  because  of  the  position  of  the  northern  belt  of  high  pressure 
the  region  is  one  of  high  pressure,  the  maximum  being  estabhshe 
over  Mongolia.     Hence  the  winds  blow  outwards,  and  being  cole 
give  to  the  districts  over  which  they  blow  temperatures  that  ai 
below  the  normal.    They  bring  little  rain  except  when  they  ha"^ 
crossed  the  sea  as  in  north-west  Japan,  or  where,  as  in  Farthe 


ASIA  199 

India,  they  are  merely  reinforcing  the  ordinary  trade  winds.  On 
the  west  oi  the  continent,  Asia  Minor,  Northern  Arabia,  and  Western 
Persia  fall  within  the  region  with  a  Mediterranean  type  of  climate 
and  receive  their  rainfall  during  the  winter  half  of  the  year. 

During  the  summer  months  the  land  surface  becomes  greatly 
heated,  and  an  area  of  low  pressure,  which  is  deepest  between  the 
Red  Sea  and  Northern  India,  is  developed  over  the  continent. 
This  low  pressure  region  sucks  in  the  trade  winds  both  of  the 
Indian  and  Pacific  Oceans,  and  so  gives  rain  to  the  whole  of  the 
region  backed  by  the  mid-world  mountain  system  from  India  to 
Korea.  The  mountain  system  itself,  on  account  of  its  position 
and  configuration,  receives  but  little  rain,  except  on  the  slopes 
exposed  to  the  monsoon  rains,  and  the  interior  plateaus  are  there- 
fore dry  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  Over  the  lowlands,  precipitation 
takes  place  mainly  in  the  summer  months.  The  south-west, 
around  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Aral,  is  dry  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year,  as  in  the  summer  it  is  sheltered  by  the  configuration  of 
the  land,  while  in  winter  it  falls  within  a  region  of  high  pressure. 
Further  north  there  is  a  gradually  increasing  rainfall,  and  a  great 
part  of  Siberia  has  between  10  and  20  inches,  the  most  of  which 
falls  in  summer,  when  moisture  is  sucked  into  the  northern  part 
of  the  continent  from  various  directions,  but  mainly  from  the  west. 
This  region  is  bounded  both  on  the  north  and  on  the  south  by  a 
belt  of  country  in  which  precipitation  is  less  than  10  inches. 


CHAPTER  XX 

asiatic  russia 

Siberia 

Siberia  may  be  defined  in  a  somewhat  general  way  as  that  part 
of  Asiatic  Russia  which  drains  to  the  Arctic  and  Pacific  Oceans. 
Including  the  steppe  governments  of  Akmolinsk  and  Semipalatinsk, 
it  has  an  area  of  over  5,200,000  square  miles.  Except  in  the  south- 
east, where  it  is  bordered  by  the  Altai  Mountains,  the  country  west 
of  the  Yenisei  consists,  in  the  main,  of  a  vast  low-lying  plain.  To 
the  east  of  the  river  this  plain  becomes  higher  and  more  contracted  ; 
while  the  Sayan,  the  Stanovoi,  and  the  Yablonoi  uplands,  and  the 
mountains  of  the  Manchurian  coign,  occupy  a  gradually  increasing 
area  towards  the  south  and  east. 

Climate. — ^The  climate  is  continental  in  character.  The  winters 
are  extremely  cold  all  over  the  country,  while  the  summers  are 
cool  in  the  tundra  region  of  the  north,  but  hot  in  the  steppe  pro 
vinces  of  the  south-west.  The  rainfall,  which  is  but  scanty,  occurs 
mainly  in  the  summer  months.  In  the  north  and  north-east  of  the 
country,  and  in  the  south-west,  less  than  10  inches  fall ; 
but  elsewhere  the  average  precipitation  is  between  10  and  20  inches 

Vegetation. — Along  the  shores  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  tundra  i 
the  prevailing  type  of  vegetation ;  but  south  of  the  Arctic  Circl 
it  gives  place  to  taiga,  which  covers  the  whole  of  the  Siberian  low 
land  east  of  the  Ob,  as  well  as  much  of  the  upland.  West  of  th' 
Ob  the  forested  area  is  more  restricted,  and,  north  of  the  53r( 
parallel,  a  belt  of  park  steppe,  with  a  maximum  breadth  of  abou 
four  degrees,  extends  from  that  river  to  the  Urals.  To  the  sout 
of  the  park  steppe  there  is  a  true  steppe-land,  which  further  sout 
gradually  passes  into  semi-desert  country. 

Natural  Regions. — ^The  economic  development  of  Siberia  is  a 
present  taking  place  mainly  to  the  west  of  Lake  Baikal,  and  hen 
several  natural  regions  stand  out  in  marked  contrast  to  one  anothei 
and  to  the  country  further  to  the  east.  West  of  the  Yenisei,  th< 
taiga  covers  a  marshy  lowland,  which  has  but  recently  emergec 
from  the  sea,  and  in  which  the  watercourses  are  as  yet  but  badl 
defined.     The  park  steppe  (along  with  which  may  be  included  th( 

200 


< 


202  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

western  valleys  of  the  Altai)  has  a  soil  and  cHmate  which  render  it 
capable  of  great  agricultural  development.  The  steppe-land  to 
the  south,  with  but  a  meagre  precipitation,  is  fit  only  for  pastoral 
pursuits  ;  while  the  Altai  and  Sayan  mountain  districts  are  chiefly 
valuable  for  the  mineral  wealth  which  they  contain.  To  the  east 
of  the  Angara- Yenisei  the  country  is  only  imperfectly  known,  and* 
as  any  subdivision  of  it  would  necessarily  be  incomplete,  the  region 
will  here  be  treated  as  a  whole. 

The  Forest  Region  of  Western  Siberia  is  of  little  economic 
importance,  as  it  is  marshy,  incapable  of  cultivation,  and  difficult 
of  penetration.  Fishing  is  the  most  important  pursuit  of  the 
inhabitants,  who  catch  large  numbers  of  salmon,  sturgeon,  and 
other  fish  for  the  Russian  and  Siberian  markets.  The  timber  of 
the  region  varies  in  quality ;  on  the  more  elevated  districts  it  is 
often  good,  but  in  the  marshes  the  trees  are  frequently  rotten. 

The  Park  Steppe  is  at  the  present  time  the  sphere  of  greatest 
economic  activity  in  Siberia.  It  contains  large  areas  of  good 
agricultural  land  ;  and  the  steppes  of  Ichim,  which  lie  between  the 
Urals  and  the  Irtysh,  the  steppe  of  Baraba,  further  to  the  east, 
and  the  valleys  and  steppes  on  the  west  of  the  Altai,  are  all  more 
or  less  covered  with  a  fertile  black  soil  similar  to  that  of  European 
Russia.  Over  much  of  the  steppe  of  Baraba  the  rainfall  is  insuffi- 
cient for  the  growth  of  crops ;  but,  in  the  other  districts  mentioned, 
cereakare  extensively  cultivated,  although  they  are  always  exposed 
to  a  certain  amount  of  danger  from  summer  drought  and  early 
autumn  frost.  Wheat  ranks  first  in  importance,  and  during  the 
years  1905-10  occupied  on  an  average  an  area  of  about  6,000,000 
acres ;  but  the  yield  was  low,  and  did  not  exceed  1 1  bushels  to 
the  acre.  For  this,  there  were  several  reasons.  The  Siberian 
peasant  is  but  a  poor  farmer,  and  he  has  been  confirmed  in  his 
slipshod  ways  by  the  fertihty  of  the  soil,  which  leads  to  extensive, 
rather  than  intensive,  methods  of  cultivation.  Formerly,  the  prac- 
tice was  to  crop  the  land  with  the  same  cereal  for  a  number  of 
years  in  succession,  only  allowing  an  occasional  year's  rest,  and  then 
to  let  it  lie  fallow  for  a  considerable  time  ;  but  recently  a  system 
of  rotation  has  been  introduced,  American  machinery  is  being 
more  extensively  used,  and  the  prospects  of  better  cultivation 
are,  on  the  whole,  somewhat  brighter  than  they  have  hitherto  been. 
Cattle  are  raised  in  large  numbers,  but,  partly  as  a  result  of  the 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA  203 

rigorous  winters  which  prevail,  the  breed  is  of  an  inferior  type,  and 
there  has  been  a  tendency  to  sacrifice  quaUty  to  quantity.  With 
the  development  of  the  butter  industry,  attempts  have  been  made 
to  improve  the  native  cattle  by  the  importation  of  animals  from 
abroad,  and  these  attempts  seem  to  have  been  at  least  partly 
successful,  notwithstanding  the  great  difficulty  there  is  in  acclima- 
tizing foreign  stock.  The  manufacture  of  butter,  which  has  now 
become  the  most  flourishing  of  Siberian  industries,  owes  its  origin 
to  Danes,  who  first  made  the  farming  population  acquainted  with 
modern  methods  of  dairying.  The  matter  was  then  taken  up  by 
the  State,  and  the  export  of  butter,  very  largely  to  the  United 
Kingdom,  has  gradually  increased  until  it  now  amounts  to  about 
55,000  tons  annually.  The  chief  centres  of  production  are  at 
Kurgan,  Omsk,  and  Petropavlovsk,  although  over  one-third  of 
the  total  quantity  is  obtained  from  the  rich  valleys  and  steppes 
round  Barnaul,  on  the  west  of  the  Altai.  Two  reasons  may  be 
adduced  for  the  rapid  rise  of  the  butter  industry :  the  Siberian 
grasslands  are  said  to  produce  milk  of  great  richness,  and  the 
freight  on  butter  is  in  proportion  to  its  value  much  less  than  that 
on  wheat. 

Although  this  region  is  the  most  densely  populated  in  Siberia, 
and  contains  over  one-half  of  the  total  population  of  the  country 
(which,  in  1910,  numbered  10,000,000,  including  that  of  Akmohnsk 
and  Semipalatinsk),  manufactures  have  made  but  Httle  progress. 
!  Such  as  exist  are  connected  with  working  up  agricultural,  pastoral, 
and  forest  products,  and  include  flour-milling,  brewing,  tanning,  and 
ll  match-making.  The  inhabitants  are,  as  a  rule,  too  poor  to  buy 
jl  much,  and  what  they  actually  require  can  be  imported  more 
jj  cheaply  by  the  Siberian  railway  than  it  can  be  manufactured  on 
'   the  spot. 

The  Steppe,  which  lies  to  the  south  of  the  previous  region,  is 
generally  unfit  for  agriculture,  and  it  is  only  in  a  few  scattered 
oases,  where  irrigation  can  be  practised,  that  colonisation  has  been 
attempted.  The  Kirghiz  tribes,  who  are  the  chief  inhabitants  of 
the  steppe,  have  large  herds  of  horses,  camels,  cattle,  and  sheep^ 
and  practically  live  in  the  same  nomadic  fashion  as  their  fathers 
have  done  for  many  centuries.  Tallow,  obtained  from  the  fat- 
tailed  sheep,  horse-hair,  and  camel's-hair  are  the  chief  exports ; 
sheep's  wool  is  too  coarse  to  find  a  market  outside  of  Siberia. 


204  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

The  economic  development  of  this  region  in  the  future  will 
depend  mainly  upon  the  exploitation  of  its  mineral  wealth.  In 
the  Ekibastuz  beds,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Pavlodar  on  the 
Irtysh,  there  are  vast  reserves  of  coal,  which  have  as  yet  been 
worked  only  to  a  slight  extent.  Gold,  silver,  and  copper  alsQ 
exist,  and  it  is  believed  that  the  supplies  of  copper,  at  least,  are 
very  considerable. 

The  Altai  and  Sayan  Region  is  noted  for  its  mineraLiathet 
fhar^  jFnr^if c;  ?\grimltnrp^  "^^^^^Ith^  There  is  a  belt  of  cultivable 
land  along  the  course  of  the  railway  ;  but  the  most  fertile  distric 
is  that  round  Minussinsk,  on  the  Upper  Yenisei,  where  the  rich 
black  soil  and  favourable  climatic  conditions  combine  to  produce 
sufficient  grain  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  mining  population  of 
Central  Siberia.  GdW  is  found  in  placer  deposits  in  the  valleys 
of  various  rivers,  such  as  those  of  the  Tom  and  its  tributaries, 
especially  round  Kusnetz ;  it  is  also  obtained  in  the  valley  of  the 
Yenisei  round  Minussinsk,  Atchinsk,  and  several  other  places 
further  to  the  north.  Round  Kusnetz  there  are  also  great  deposits 
of  irpn  ore,  but  these  have  not  been  worked  to  any  great  extent 
Cqal  occurs  in  various  places ;  the  largest  deposits  are  probablji 
those  in  the  Jurassic  rocks  which  occupy  the  whole  valley  of  ihi 
Tom,  but  the  mines  chiefly  worked  at  present  seem  to  be  thos< 
of  Cheremkovo,  situated  near  the  town  of  Irkutsk,  which  supply 
the  railway  with  much  of  its  fuel.  Notwithstanding  the  greai 
mineral  wealth  of  this  region,  the  total  production  is  still  small 
and  much  of  the  iron  and  steel  used  in  the  country  is  imported  fron 
South  Russia.  For  this  there  are  several  reasons :  the  search  foi 
gold  has  always  proved  more  attractive  to  the  mining  population 
there  is  an  absence  both  of  the  capital  and  labour  necessary  foi 
manufacture ;  and  the  means  of  communication  are  still  ver 
badly  developed. 

Eastern  Siberia. — ^The  greater  part  of  Eastern  Siberia 
imperfectly  known,  as  far  at  least  as  its  economic  resources  an 
concerned.  Most  of  the  land  is  covered  with  forest,  and  the  pro 
portion  fit  for  agriculture  is  believed  to  be  much  lower  than  ii 
Western  Siberia.  The  climate  also  is  more  severe,  and  tends  t' 
restrict  agriculture  to  such  favoured  localities  as  the  southern  par 
of  trans-Baikalia  and  the  more  sheltered  districts  in  the  valley 
of  the  Amur  and  the  Ussuri.     The  amount  of  grain  grown  is  no 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA  205 

sufficient  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  inhabitants,  who  are 
obliged  to  import  it  from  Western  Siberia.  Timber  will  probably 
prove  a  valuable  source  of  revenue  in  the  future,  more  especially 
near  the  coast  where  it  can  be  easily  worked,  and  even  now  a 
considerable  quantity  is  exported,  mainly  to  Australia.  Fishing  is 
an  important  pursuit  along  the  lower  reaches  of  the  Amur  and  in 
Kamchatka,  where  large  quantities  of  salmon  are  caught.  From 
the  Amur,  caviare  is  now  exported  to  European  Russia,  but  the 
fisheries  of  Kamchatka  are  mainly  in  the  hands  of  Japanese. 
Herring  are  found  along  the  coast  and  in  Sakhalin. 

But  it  is  for  its  rnineral  wealth  that  Eastern  Siberia  is  chiefly 
important  at  the  present  time.  The  region  produces  the  greater 
part  of  the  Siberian  output  of  gold,  much  of  it  being  obtained  from 
the  districts  of  Vitimsk  and  Olekminsk  in  the  basin  of  the  Lena, 
from  those  of  Zeiski  and  Boureynsky  in  the  basin  of  the  Amur,  and 
from  the  valley  of  the  Ussuri.  For  working  the  alluvial  sands, 
which  alone  are  exploited  to  any  extent  at  present,  steam 
dredgers  have  recently  been  introduced.  The  richest  deposits  are 
believed  to  lie  near  the  coast,  and  a  strip  of  land  extending  inland 
for  about  66  miles  has,  until  lately,  been  closed  to  private  mining 
enterprise.  Coal  of  poor  quality  occurs  in  the  basin  of  the  Ussuri 
and  elsewhere,  but  the  richest  deposits  of  that  mineral  are  said  to 
lie  along  the  west  coast  of  Sakhalin,  from  the  Russo-Japanese 
frontier  northwards. 

Communications. — ^The  rivers  of  Siberia,  although  they  are, 
with  one  or  two  exceptions,  closed  by  ice  for  more  than  half  the 
year,  are  of  considerable  value  as  waterways.  The  Ob  is  navig- 
able as  far  as  Biisk,  and,  along  with  the  Tobol  and  the  Irtysh, 
is  used  for  the  conveyance  of  grain  from  the  agricultural  regions 
to  Tiumen  on  the  Tura,  whence  it  is  sent  by  rail  to  Kotlas  to  be 
floated  down  the  Dwina  to  Archangel.  The  Yenisei,  notwith- 
standing its  great  volume,  plays  a  less  important  part,  and  is 
used  mainly  for  local  purposes,  such,  for  example,  as  forwarding 
the  grain  of  Minussinsk  to  the  mining  districts  further  north. 
These  two  systems  are  connected  by  a  short  canal,  which  has 
not  proved  of  great  value.  The  Lena  is  of  some  service  to  the 
mineral  districts  of  Vitimsk  and  Olekminsk,  while  the  Amur  is 
navigable  nearly  to  its  source  and  carries  on  a  considerable  amount 
of  trade.     But  the  most  important  route  of  all  is  undoubtedly  the 


206  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

trans-Siberian  railway  which  runs  from  Cheliabinsk,  where  lines 
meet  from  St.  Petersburg  and  Moscow,  by  Omsk  and  Irkutsk, 
round  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Baikal,  and  across  Manchuria  by 
Harbin  to  Vladivostok.  Two  important  lines  to  connect  with  it 
are  at  present  under  construction  :  one  is  intended  to  run  from  a 
point  a  short  distance  east  of  Lake  Baikal,  by  Kiakhta  and  Urga, 
to  Kalgan  in  China,  and  so  connect  with  the  Chinese  railway  system ; 
while  the  other  will  leave  the  main  line  several  hundred  miles  further 
east,  and  follow  the  courses  of  the  Shilka  and  the  Amur  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  way  to  Khaborovsk,  where  it  will  meet  the  Hne 
running  to  that  place  from  Vladivostok  along  the  valley  of  the 
Ussuri.  The  first  of  these  will  shorten  the  journey  to  Pekin  by 
several  days,  while  the  second  will  provide  an  all-Russian  route 
across  Siberia  to  Vladivostok.  The  completion  of  the  trans- 
Siberian  railway  has  imdoubtedly  been  the  most  important  factor 
in  the  economic  development  of  the  country.  Between  1861  and 
1895  (the  year  in  which  the  line  was  opened  to  Irkutsk)  less  than 
1,000,000  emigrants  entered  the  country.  Since  then  over  3,000,000 
people  have  moved  into  it  from  European  Russia,  the  present  rate 
being  over  half  a  milhon  per  year. 

Russian  Central  Asia 

This  region  may  be  considered  as  including  that  part  of  Asia 
which  borders  upon  Siberia  (including  the  steppe  governments  of 
Akmolinsk  and  Semipalatinsk),  Chinese  Turkestan,  the  Pamirs, 
Afghanistan,  Persia,  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  European  Russia.  It 
has  an  area,  including  the  semi-independent  Khanates  of  Khiva 
and  Bokhara,  of  over  1,000,000  square  miles,  and  a  population 
which  is  estimated  to  number  10,000,000. 

Russian  Central  Asia  varies  greatly  in  its  physical  aspects.  In 
the  east  it  belongs  to  the  region  of  the  Pamirs  and  the  Tian  Shan, 
while  in  the  west  it  passes  into  the  plains  of  the  Aralo-Caspian 
depression.  The  climate  throughout  is  extreme,  and  is  charac- 
terised by  cold  winters,  hot  summers,  and  a  very  low  rainfall. 
Hence,  much  of  the  land  is  desert  or,  at  best,  steppe ;  and  it  is 
only  in  the  vicinity  of  rivers,  which  are  fed  by  melting  snows  on 
the  mountains,  that  settlement  is  possible.  Of  these  rivers,  the 
most  important  are  the  lU  in  Semirechensk,  the  Syr-Daria  in 
Ferghana    and     Syr-Daria,    the    Zerafshan    in    Samarkand    and 


ASIATIC  RUSSIA  207 

Bokhara,  the  Murghab  in  trans-Caspia,  and  the  Amu-Daria  between 
Bokhara  and  Syr-Daria  on  its  right,  and  trans-Caspia  and  Khiva 
on  its  left  banks.  Where  the  conditions  are  favourable,  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  districts  bordering  these  rivers  have  developed  an 
elaborate,  if  primitive,  system  of  irrigation  and  settled  down  to 
agriculture,  but  on  the  steppes  nomadism  still  prevails.  In  the 
irrigated  districts  the  soil  is  generally  very  fertile,  and  the  crops 
grown  include  v/heai  (sometimes  raised  without  irrigation),  rice 
(where  water  is  abundant),  and  other  cereals,  sesame,  flax,  and 
great  quantities  of  fruit  and  vegetables.  Most  important  of  all, 
however,  has  been  the  extension  within  recent  years  of  the  area 
under  cotton,  which  flourishes  best  in  Ferghana,  but  is  grown  to 
some  extent  also  in  Syr-Daria  and  in  Samarkand.  During  the 
three  years  1908-10  the  annual  output  averaged  about  95,000  tons 
of  ginned  cotton.  The  seed  used  is  American,  and  the  product, 
the  quality  of  which  is  fairly  good,  goes  exclusively  to  European 
Russia. 

Russian  Central  Asia  is  now  connected  with  the  European  rail- 
way system  by  a  line  which  runs  from  Samara^through  Orenburg  to 
Tashkent.  There  it  joins  the  trans-Caspian  railway  which  connects 
Krasnovodsk  on  the  Caspian  with  Merv  (whence  there  is  a  branch  to 
Kushk  on  the  frontier  of  Afghanistan),  Bokhara,  Samarkand,  and 
Andijan. 


CHAPTER  XXI 

asiatic  turkey  and  arabia 

Anatolia 

The  plateau  of  Anatolia,  which  is  buttressed  on  the  north  and  on 
the  south  by  the  Pontic  and  Taurus  ranges  respectively,  extends 
from  the  iEgean  eastwards  to  the  Armenian  knot.  To  the  west 
of  the  Anti-Taurus  the  plateau  forms  a  great  central  plain,  of 
which  the  elevation  is  between  2,500  and  3,000  feet ;  but  to  the 
east  the  land,  besides  increasing  in  height,  becomes  more  irregular 
in  contour,  and  the  region  consists  of  elevated  plains,  separated 
by  the  numerous  ranges  which  finally  converge  in  the  highlands 
of  Armenia.  The  mountains  which  border  the  plateau  approach 
closely  to  the  sea  and  leave  little  room  for  the  formation  of  coastal 
plains,  the  most  important  of  which  are  those  of  the  Kizil  and  the 
Kalkid  in  the  north,  and  of  Pamphylia  and  Cilicia  in  the  south. 
To  the  west  the  slope  of  the  land  is  more  gentle,  and  many  broad 
valleys  open  out  upon  the  ^Egean,  and  offer  the  natural  routes  for 
penetration  into  the  interior. 

On  the  coastal  regions,  which  include  both  the  plains  and  the 
lower  slopes  of  the  hills,  the  climate  is  typically  Mediterranean. 
At  Smyrna,  for  example,  the  mean  temperature  for  January  is 
46°  F.  and  for  July  80°  F.  On  the  plateau,  the  summers 
are  hot  ai;d  the  winters  very  cold,  especially  in  the  east,  where 
snow  lies  for  many  months  in  the  year.  The  rainfall,  which  occurs 
during  the  winter  half  of  the  year,  is  heaviest  in  the  coastal  dis- 
tricts, and  is  generally  between  20  and  30  inches,  except  along  the 
eastern  part  of  the  Black  Sea  Httoral,  where  it  exceeds  the  latter 
amount.  On  the  plateau  the  precipitation  is  almost  everywhere 
less  than  20  inches,  and  over  a  great  part  of  Western  Anatolia  it 
is  less  than  10  inches. 

For  the  division  of  the  coimtry  into  natural  regions,  it  is  most 
important  to  distinguish  between  the  coastal  plains  and  the  lower 
slopes  of  the  plateau  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  plateau  on  the  other. 

The  Coastal  Districts,  along  with  which  may  be  included  the 
iEgean  Islands  (Samos,  Rhodes,  Mitylene,  Chios,  and  others), 
contain  considerable  areas  of  fertile  soil,  but  their  full  development 

208 


ASIATIC   TURKEY   AND  ARABIA  209 

has  been  greatly  retarded  by  the  disturbed  political  conditions 
which  have  so  long  prevailed  in  the  country.  The  c^eals  grown 
include  wheat,  maize,  and  barley,  the  last  of  which  is  exported  to 
England,  where  it  is  esteemed  for  malting.  The  west  coast  is 
especially  noted  for  its  fruits,  the  most  important  of  which  are 
the  grape,  the  olive,  and  the  fig.  Of  these,  the  grape,  which  is 
exported  in  the  form  of  raisins  (the  manufacture  of  wine  being  for- 
bidden by  Mahommedan  law),  has  the  widest  range  ;  the  olive  does 
not  extend  inland  more  than  fifteen  or  twenty  miles  from  the  coast, 
except  in  the  district  round  Aidin  ;  while  the  fig  flourishes  best 
in  the  valleys  of  the  Cayster  and  the  Maeander.  Cotton,  generally 
of  inferior  quality,  is  grown,  among  other  places,  in  the  districts 
round  Kassaba  and  Aidin  in  the  west,  and  on  the  Cilician  plain 
in  the  south-east ;  but  it  is  believed  that  the  latter  district,  at  least, 
if  developed  and  irrigated,  might  produce  large  quantities  of  excel- 
lent material,  as  at  present  only  part  of  it  is  cultivated,  and  that 
is  devoted  mainly  to  cereals.  On  the  north  coast,  tobacco  is 
extensively  grown  on  the  river  deltas  in  the  country  between 
Trebizond  and  Sinope,  while  from  the  warm  temperate  forest, 
which  borders  the  Black  Sea,  large  quantities  of  hazel  nuts  are 
exported.  Among  other  products  of  the  coastal  districts  are 
sesame,  valonia,  opium,  etc. 

Apart  from  agriculture,  there  has  been  but  little  economic 
development.  Soap,  in  the  manufacture  of  which  oUve  oil  is 
extensively  used,  is  made  in  the  island  of  Mitylene,  at  Smyrna, 
and  elsewhere ;  carpets  are  woven  in  various  places ;  and  there 
are  cotton  mills,  cigarette  factories,  tanneries,  and  a  number  of 
other  small  manufacturing  establishments. 

The  Plateau. — On  the  plateau  the  conditions  of  economic 
activity  are  very  different.  Some  wheat  and  millet  are  grown  in 
favoured  localities,  but  the  principal  pursuits  of  the  region  are 
pastoral,  and,  in  the  west,  are  mainly  confined  to  rearing  the 
famous  Angora  goat,  from  which  mohair  is  obtained.  Upon  this 
raw  material  is  based  the  carpet-making  industry,  which  is  carried 
on  in  many  small  villages  throughout  the  region.  In  the  east  of 
!  the  plateau  the  horse  replaces  the  goat  as  the  mainstay  of  the 
inhabitants,  who  are  typical  nomads. 

Minerals  are  beheved  to  be  abundant  in  both  regions,  and 
among  those  known  to  exist  are  silver,  copper,  lead,  antimony. 


210  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

chrome,  and  emery  ;  but,  although  numerous  concessions  have  been 
granted  for  their  exploitation,  comparatively  little  actual  work 
has  been  done.  Chrome,  emery,  and  antimony  are  exported  to  a 
small  extent. 

Commerce. — ^The  principal  exports  ot  the  country  include 
raisins,  tobacco,  barley,  figs,  liquorice,  wool,  hides  and  skins  ;  but 
at  present  it  is  impossible  to  give  exact  details  of  their  actual  value. 

Syria 

The  coastal  strip,  which  is  narrow  in  the  north,  but  broadens 
out  in  the  south  into  the  plains  of  Sharon  and  Philistia,  is 
bordered  by  a  series  of  highlands  which  include  the  Giaour  Dagh, 
Lebanon,  and  the  hill  districts  of  Samaria  and  Judaea.  Beyond 
these  lies  the  rift  valley  of  the  Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea,  the 
eastern  walls  of  which  form  the  escarpment  of  a  plateau  that  falls 
away  gradually  towards  the  Euphrates.  The  climate  is  of  an 
extreme  Mediterranean  t5rpe  and  the  summers  are  hot,  especially 
in  the  rift  valley  and  on  the  eastern  plateau,  while  the  winters  are 
warm  (except  in  the  north,  where  there  is  often  heavy  snow). 
Precipitation  is  heaviest  on  the  slopes  of  the  Lebanon,  which 
have  an  average  rainfall  of  over  40  inches ;  but  this  amount 
decreases  shghtly  towards  the  north,  and  rapidly  towards  the  south 
and  east. 

Agriculture  is  the  main  industry  of  the  inhabitants,  but, 
though  much  of  the  soil  is  fertile,  a  great  part  of  it  is  uncultivated  ; 
and  there  is  little  doubt  but  that  improved  methods  of  husbandry, 
and  more  especially  the  development  of  irrigation,  would  increase 
to  a  considerable  extent  the  productive  powers  of  the  land.  The 
chief  agricultural  areas  lie  either  upon  the  slopes  of  the  hills 
facing  the  sea,  or  on  the  plateau  beyond  the  rift  valley.  In  the 
first  of  these  regions,  the  ohveis  extensively  grown,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  oil,  and  soap  therefrom,  are  two  of  the  most  important 
industries  in  the  country.  Round  Alexandretta  in  the  north,  and 
Jaffa  in  the  south,  there  are  now  many  orange  plantations,  though 
in  the  latter  district  irrigation  is  necessary.  Lemons  also  are  of 
increasing  importance.  The  rearing  of  the  silkworm  has  long  been 
practised  in  the  Lebanon  province  ;  but  the  industry  is  beginning 
to  spread  along  the  coast,  both  to  the  north  and  south,  as  well  as 
inland  to  the  Anti-Lebanon.     The  silk  is  spun  in  the  district  and 


ASIATIC  TURKEY  AND  ARABIA  211 

the  product  is  exported,  the  bulk  of  it  going  to  Lyons.  Tobacco 
is  cultivated  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  but  the  export  con- 
sists mainly  of  that  which  is  grown  in  the  mountains  behind 
Latakia.  Between  the  Lebanon  and  the  Anti-Lebanon  there  are 
numerous  vineyards,  and  within  recent  years  the  cultivation  of  the 
vine  has  extended  to  the  coastal  regions  round  Haifa  and  Jaffa, 
where  sesame  is  also  an  important  crop.  On  the  plateau  region, 
to  the  east  of  the  rift  valley,  the  products  are  of  a  somewhat  different 
character,  and  cereals  are  grown  in  sufficient  quantities  round 
Damascus,  Hama,  and  Aleppo  to  permit  of  a  considerable  export, 
especially  of  barley;  while  cotton  is  an  important  crop  round  Idlib 
in  the  north,  where  there  is  said  to  be  much  fertile  land,  at  present 
lying  fallow,  suitable  for  the  cultivation  of  that  plant.  To  the  east 
of  the  regions  mentioned,  the  want  of  rainfall  condemns  the  country 
to  pastoral  pursuits  alone,  and  even  these  disappear  towards  the 
Syrian  desert.  Among  the  more  important  industries  of  Northern 
Syria  are  weaving  and  dyeing  at  Aleppo,  and  the  tanning  of  leather 
at  Aintab. 

Minerals  are  known  to  exist  in  different  parts  of  Syria,  but, 
so  far,  Uttle  has  been  done  for  their  development.  The 
principal  exports  of  the  country  include  oranges  and  lemons, 
sesame,  silk,  soap,  barley,  and  liquorice. 

Mesopotamia 

Mesopotamia,  which  belongs  to  the  basins  of  the  Tigris  and 
Euphrates,  lies  between  the  Syrian  desert  and  the  hill  country 
bordering  the  Iranian  plateau.  The  land  has  a  gradual  slope 
from  the  north-west  as  far  as  an  old  coast  line,  which  runs  from 
Hit  on  the  Euphrates  towards  Samara  on  the  Tigris,  and  beyond 
which  stretches  a  level  plain  that  is  really  the  delta  of  these  great 
rivers.  The  scanty  rainfall  occurs  during  the  winter  months,  and 
at  Bagdad  probably  does  not  exceed  5  inches,  though  to  the  east 
of  the  Tigris  it  is  over  10  inches.  The  winters  are  warm  and  the 
summers  hot  :  at  Bagdad  the  range  is  from  45°  F.  in  January  to 
87**  F.  in  August.  In  the  north,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  rivers  as 
far  south  as  the  latitude  of  Bagdad,  there  are  considerable  areas  of 
grazing  land,  but  much  of  the  true  "  Mesopotamia "  is  desert. 
In  the  delta,  past  civihsations  have  maintained  themselves  .by 
the  aid  of  great  systems  of  irrigation  which  have  fallen  into  decay  ; 

14— (1326) 


212  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

and,  even  with  the  primitive  methods  at  present  adopted,  crops 
of  wheat,  millet,  and  sesame  are  grown,  while  barley  is  often 
cultivated  with  winter  rainfall  only.  In  the  more  southerly 
parts  of  the  delta,  where  the  land  is  inundated  yearly,  population 
is  densest,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  date-palm  has  given  to  its 
people  a  more  settled  character  than  is  the  case  in  other  parts  of  the 
country.  The  proposed  scheme  for  the  restoration  of  the  irriga- 
tion system  in  the  delta  is  of  considerable  interest.  As  the 
rivers  are  in  flood  during  the  spring  when  the  highland  snow  is 
melting,  and  as  the  summers  are  hot  and  dry,  the  basin  system  of 
ancient  Egypt  is  impossible,  and  perennial  irrigation  is  necessary. 
The  total  area  of  the  delta  is  about  5,000,000  hectares  ;  and  Sir 
William  Willcocks  estimates  that  the  available  water  supply  is 
sufficient  to  irrigate  3,000,000  hectares  of  winter  crops  (wheat, 
barley,  beans,  and  roots,  which  require  irrigation  from  November 
to  May),  and  1,250,000  hectares  of  summer  crops  (millet,  sesame, 
and  cotton,  which  need  water  from  April  till  the  middle  of  July). 
At  present,  a  beginning  has  been  made  to  works,  which,  if  they 
are  eventually  completed  as  proposed,  will  bring  1,400,000  hectares 
under  irrigation. 

The  principal  towns  of  Mesopotamia  are  Basra,  at  the  head  of 
navigation  for  ocean-going  ships  on  the  Shat-el-Arab ,  and  the 
chief  port  of  the  country ;  Bagdad,  which  is  reached  by  river 
steamers  from  Basra,  and  carries  on  an  important  trade  with 
Persia  ;  and  Mosul,  which  is  the  centre  of  thfe  pastoral  area  in  the 
north  of  the  country.  The  principal  exports  include  dates,  wool, 
barley,  and  opium ;  while  cotton  goods  and  other  textiles,  sugar, 
and  timber  form  the  greater  part  of  the  imports. 

Arabia 

Arabia  is  a  great  plateau  almost  one-third  the  size  of  Europe, 
with  a  slope  from  the  west  and  south  towards  the  east  and  north. 
Owing  to  the  low  rainfall,  the  greater  part  of  the  region  is  a  desert, 
and  the  bulk  of  the  population  is  settled  upon  the  margins  of  the 
plateau,  where  the  conditions  are  somewhat  more  favourable. 
In  the  centre,  in  the  country  known  as  the  Nejd,  where  the  lime- 
stone is  uncovered  by  the  sands  of  the  deserts  which  lie  to  the  north 
and  south,  there  are  a  number  of  scattered  oases  ;  and  on  the  poor 
steppe  lands  which  surround  them,  the  Bedawins  feed  their  flocks. 


ASIATIC   TURKEY  AND   ARABIA  213 

On  the  west  coast,  Turkey  possesses  the  provinces  of  ^Hejaz  and 

Yemen,  in  the  latter  of  which  there  is  sufficient  summer  rainfall 

"to^pefmit  the  growth  of  the  plant  from  which  the  famous  Mokha 

coffee  is  obtained.    Yemen  has,  within  recent  years,  suffered  greatly 

"^^om  tlie  competition  of  Brazil,  and  its  output  now  holds  a  relatively 
unimportant  place  in  the  world's  markets.  The  chief  towns  on 
the  west  coast  are  Jidda,  the  port  of  Mecca,  and  Hodeida,  which 
carries  on  most  of  the  trade  of  Yemen.     In  the  south  of  Arabia 

:  is  the  district  of  Hadramut,  once  famous  for  its  myrrh  and  frank- 
incense ;  while  in  the  south-east  is  the  mountainous  country  of 
Oman,  an  independent  sultanate,  from  which  dates  are  exported. 
Its  capital,  Muscat,  has  some  coasting  trade. 

Railways  of  Asiatic  Turkey. — In  Asia  Minor  the  principal 
railway  is  that  which  runs  from  Haidar  Pasha  to  Konia,  with  a 
connection  to  Smyrna.  Konia  is  now  all  but  linked  up  with 
Aleppo,  and  the  line  is  being  continued  to  the  east,  whence  it  will 
go  by  Mosul  to  Bagdad.  There  is  a  branch  from  the  main  line 
to  Alexandretta.  From  Aleppo,  a  railway  runs  south  by 
Damascus  to  Medina,  and  may  ultimately  be  continued  to  Mecca. 
This  line  is  connected  with  the  ports  on  the  Syrian  coast  by 
branches  from  Homs  to  Tripoli,  Rayak  to  Beirut,  and  Deraa  to 
Haifa  and  Acre.     A  line  also  runs  from  Jaffa  to  Jerusalem. 


1 


CHAPTER  XXII 

persia  and  afghanistan 

Persia 

The  area  of  Persia  is  estimated  at  628,000  square  miles,  while  the 
population  is  believed  to  number  9,000,000.  Though  the  country 
belongs,  in  the  main,  to  the  Iranian  plateau,  its  topography  is 
somewhat  varied.  In  the  north-west,  an  irregular  mountain  system ' 
forms  the  connecting  link  between  the  ranges  of  the  Elburz  and 
the  Kopet  Dagh,  which  border  the  plateau  on  the  north,  and  the 
parallel  ranges  of  Kurdistan,  Laristan,  and  Arabistan,  which 
border  it  on  the  south-west.  East  of  the  latter  uplands  a  great 
high  plain  contains  many  of  the  most  fertile  districts  in  the  country. 
This  plain  is  bordered  on  the  east,  as  on  the  west,  by  several  parallel 
ranges,  which  separate  it  from  the  deserts  that  extend  over  the 
greater  part  of  Eastern  Persia.  In  the  extreme  east  some  irregular 
mountain  districts  lie  between  these  deserts  and  Afghanistan. 

Climate. — ^The  climate  of  Persia  is  continental  in  character, 
the  summers  everywhere  being  hot,  except  in  some  parts  of  the 
highlands,  while  the  winters  are  cold,  with  the  exception  of  a  strip 
along  the  Gulf  coast  where  they  are  mild.  The  precipitation 
occurs  mainly  during  the  winter  half  of  the  year,  and  is  heaviest 
on  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Elburz  Mountains  where  it  ranges 
from  20  to  40  inches  or  more.  Elsewhere,  on  the  uplands  it  is 
generally  over  10  inches,  but  throughout  a  great  part  of  Central 
Persia  considerably  less  than  that  amount  of  rain  falls. 

Natural  Regions. — ^The  physical  divisions  already  mentioned 
probably  form  the  best  basis  for  the  treatment  of  the  country  by 
natural  regions,  more  especially  as  they  correspond,  to  some 
extent,   with  the  climatic  differences  which  exist. 

The  Armenian  Knot. — ^The  irregular  mountain  system  of  the 
north-west,  which  forms  part  of  the  Armenian  Knot,  is  practically 
co-extensive  with  the  province  of  Azerbaijan  ;  and,  owing  to  its 
position,  has  a  somewhat  greater  rainfall  than  many  other  parts  of 
the  country.  On  the  uplands,  which  are  devoted  to  pastoral  pur- 
suits, the  people  are  nomadic,  and  follow  their  herds  from  place 
to  place ;  but  in  the  lowlands,  where  the  soil  is  fertile  and  water 
fairly  abundant,  the  inhabitants  are  sedentary,  and  are  chiefly 

214 


PERSIA  AND   AFGHANISTAN  215 

engaged  in  agriculture — cereals,  cotton,  the  vine,  and  various 
fruits  all  being  extensively  grown.  Minerals  are  believed  to  be 
plentiful,  and  iron,  copper,  and  lead  have  for  long  been  worked  in 
a  somewhat  h  iphazard  fashion.  Tabriz,  which  is  the  chief  town 
of  the  region,  lies  in  the  fertile  basin  of  Lake  Urmia,  and  is  a 
place  of  considerable  commercial  importance,  as  it  is  the  centre 
of  one  of  the  most  densely  populated  parts  of  Persia. 

The  Northern  Provinces. — ^The  two  provinces  of  Gilan  and 
Mazanderan  belong,  in  the  main,  to  the  northern  slopes  of  the 
Elburz  range,  and  differ  in  many  respects  from  other  parts  of 
Persia,  chiefly  as  a  result  of  the  much  heavier  rainfall  which  they 
receive.     Along  the  coast,  the  level  land  consists  of  alluvial  tracts 
built  up  of  sediment  carried  down  by  mountain  streams;    much 
of  it  is  covered  with  jungle,  but  in  numerous  places  clearings  have 
been  made  in  which  rice,  sugar,  and  cotton  can  all  be  grown.     The 
cultivation  of  cotton  is  on  the  increase,  but,  like  aU  Persian  varie- 
ties, the  staple  is  short.     Above  the  jungle  lies  the  forest,  which 
consists  mainly  of  deciduous  trees.     Along  its  lower  fringes  the 
chief  towns  of  the  region  are  situated,  as  malaria  forbids  settle- 
ment on  the  coastal  plains,  and  in  their  vicinity  oranges,  lemons, 
citrons,  olives,  and  other  fruits  all  flourish.     Gilan  is  still  noted 
for  its  silk,  though  the  industry  has  never  recovered  from  the 
disease  by  which  it  was  devastated  over  forty  years  ago,  and 
the  place  of  the  mulberry  has  in  many  places  been  taken  by  rice. 
Owing  to  difficulties  of  transport  and  other  causes,  the  timber  of 
this  region  has  never  been  exploited.     Above  the  forest-belt  there  is 
bare  pasture  land,  where  the  inhabitants  are  largely  nomadic 
and  depend  upon  their  flocks  for  subsistence,  though  cereals  are 
also  -grown.     Manufactures   are   confined  mainly  to  the  towns, 
where  cotton,  wooUen,  and  silk  goods  are  all  produced.     Coal  and 
iron  exist  on  both   slopes  of   the  Elburz,  but,  because  of   the 
proximity    of   the    capital,    have   been    mainly    worked    on    the 
southern.     Enzeli,  which  is  the  port  of  Resht,  the  capital  of  Gilan, 
is  the  principal  seaport  of  Persia  on  the  Caspian,  and  through  it 
passes  much  of  the  trade  of  Central  Persia  with  Russia.     Other 
ports    are    Bender-Gez,    at    the    south-east    extremity    of    the 
Caspian,  and  Meshediser,  the  port  of  Barfurush. 

North    Khorasan. — The    Kopet    Dagh   and    other   mountain 
ranges    which    occupy    the    northern    part    of     the    province    of 


216  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

Khorasan,  form  a  distinct  natural  region.  The  valleys,  which 
have  an  elevation  varying  from  3,000  to  4,000  feet,  are  sometimes 
well  watered,  and  when  this  is  the  case  they  are  the  centres  of 
considerable  agricultural  activity.  The  districts  along  the  courses 
of  the  Keshef-rud,  which  drains  into  the  Hari-rud,  and  of  the 
Atrek  and  Gurgan,  which  drain  into  the  Caspian  Sea,  have  made 
north  Khorasan  the  granary  of  Persia.  On  the  neighbouring 
uplands,  which  are  only  fit  for  pasture,  large  numbers  of  camels 
are  raised.  The  manufacture  of  carpets  and  shawls  is  carried  on 
both  by  the  sedentary  peoples  in  the  towns  and  villages  of  the 
lowlands,  and  by  the  nomads  of  the  uplands.  Mineral  wealth  is 
believed  to  be  abundant,  but,  so  far,  has  been  little  worked. 
Meshed,  in  the  valley  of  the  Keshef-rud,  is  the  chief  town  of  the 
region,  but  is  badly  placed  for  trade  except  with  Russia. 

The  South- Western  Mountains. — A  great  part  of  Kurdistan 
Laristan,  and  Arabistan  is  occupied  by  parallel  ranges,  which  in 
the  north  are  separated  from  one  another  by  narrow  valleys  and 
plains,  but  unite  in  the  south  into  a  single  range.  The  inhabit 
ants  of  the  region  are  engaged  mainly  in  agricultural  and  pastoral 
pursuits,  many  of  them  leading  a  semi-nomadic  existence.  Sheep 
and  goats,  horses  and  cattle,  are  reared  in  large  numbers,  and 
butter  and  cheese  are  important  products.  Opium  is  grown  in 
some  of  the  plains,  while  gum-tragacanth  is  collected  from  the 
hills  and  mountains  around.  Woollen  goods,  and  especially 
carpets,  are  the  chief  manufactures.  There  are  few  towns,  and  the 
patriarchal  form  of  society  prevails  in  many  parts  of  the  region. 

The  Central  Plain. — ^The  waters  which  flow  eastwards 
towards  the  desert  from  the  mountains  in  the  west  of  Persia  are 
used  for  purposes  of  irrigation  in  the  arid  steppes  of  the  Central 
Plain,  and  account  for  the  fertility  of  that  long  line  of  oases 
which  extends  from  Teheran  in  the  north  to  Shiraz  in  the  south. 
In  these  oases,  where  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  region  are 
settled,  agriculture  is  an  important  pursuit.  Cereals  and  cottor 
are  grown  everywhere ;  the  best  Persian  tobacco  is  cultivatec 
round  Shiraz,  Kashan,  and  Tabbas ;  and  Isfahan,  Niriz,  anc 
Shiraz  are  noted  for  their  opium.  As  is  generally  the  case  amon^ 
the  dwellers  in  oases,  considerable  attention  is  paid  to  industry 
and  trade.  Kashan,  where  the  silkworm  once  flourished,  is  stil 
noted  for  its  manufacture  of  silks,  sateens,  velvets,  and  brocadesl 


PERSIA  AND  AFGHANISTAN  217 

Isfahan  is  famous  for  its  brassware,  and  Hamadan  is  the  great 
tannery  of  Persia.  Teheran,  Isfahan,  Kashan,  and  Shiraz  are  all 
important  trading  centres. 

The  Central  Ranges,  which  border  the  Central  Plain  on  the 
east,  are  generally  of  limestone  formation.  As  a  rule,  the  soil  is 
poor  and  infertile ;  but  round  Yezd,  in  the  north,  and  Kerman, 
in  the  south,  there  are  various  districts  where  rice,  cotton,  tobacco, 
opium,  and  henna  can  all  be  grown.  In  these  districts  the  people 
are  sedentary,  but  elsewhere  they  are  nomadic  and  are  engaged  in 
pastoral  pursuits.  Kerman  is  noted  for  its  carpets  made  entirely 
from  cotton,  but  other  manufactures  are  of  little  import^ince. 
Minerals  are  believed  to  be  extensively  distributed,  especially  in 
the  south,  where  iron,  copper,  and  coal  are  all  known  to  exist. 
Yezd  and  Kerman  are  important  centres  for  the  caravan  trade 
across  the  desert. 

The  Eastern  Districts. — Of  the  great  deserts  of  Persia  it  is 
unnecessary  to  speak  here.  Further  east,  the  country  is  moun- 
tainous, and,  although  a  little  agriculture  is  possible  where  there 
is  sufficient  rain  or  where  irrigation  is  practicable,  the  bulk  of  the 
people  are  nomadic,  and  wander  about  with  the  cattle,  sheep, 
goats,  and  camels,  which  constitute  their  worldly  possessions. 
Wool,  skins,  and  clarified  butter  are,  therefore,  the  chief  products 
of  the  region,  although  some  opium  and  silk  are  obtained  from  the 
settled  districts.  The  manufacture  of  carpets  is  also  of  some 
importance. 

The  Gulf  Coast. — ^The  escarpment  of  the  Iranian  plateau  runs 
along  the  entire  length  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  sometimes  approaching 
close  to  it,  but  generally  receding  from  it  a  distance  of  15  to  30  miles. 
The  coastal  strip  is  sandy,  and,  except  in  places  where  there  are 
clusters  of  date  palms,  is  one  of  the  least  inviting  parts  of 
Persia.  The  valley  of  the  Karun  is  an  exception  to  this  general 
rule,  and  only  requires  the  development  of  an  irrigation  system 
to  render  it  one  of  the  most  productive  districts  in  the  country. 
The  chief  towns  situated  upon  the  coast — Bushire,  Bunder  Abbas, 
and  Lingah — all  derive  their  importance  from  the  facilities  which 
they  offer  for  penetration  into  the  interior. 

Communications. — Economic  progress  in  Persia  has  been  greatly 
retarded  by  the  want  of  good  means  of  communication.  With 
practically  no  railways  and  with  few  carriage  roads,  the  country 


218  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

has  been  forced  to  rely  almost  entirely  upon  caravans  for  its  means 
of  transport.  In  the  north,  it  is  true,  matters  are  somewhat  better 
than  in  the  south.  Julfa,  the  terminus  of  a  branch  liae  from 
Tiflis  on  the  trans-Caucasian  railway,  is  connected  with  Tabriz  by 
a  good  carriage  road,  which  was  built  by  the  Russians.  Another 
carriage  road  leads  from  Enzeli  to  Teheran,  while  a  third  runs  from 
Ashabad  on  the  trans-Caspian  railway  to  Meshed.  Caravan  routes 
connect  Tabriz  with  Trebizond  on  the  Black  Sea,  with  Astara  on 
the  Caspian,  and,  by  way  of  Teheran,  with  Isfahan  and  Meshed. 
In  the  south  of  the  country  the  Karun  opens  up  river  communica- 
tion from  Mohammerah,  the  port  of  transhipment  near  its  mouth, 
to  the  rapids  at  Ahwaz,  whence  a  caravan  route  leads  to  Isfahan. 
From  Basra,  on  the  Shat-el-Arab,  a  considerable  quantity  of  goods 
for  Persia  makes  its  way  upstream  to  Bagdad,  from  which  town  it 
is  forwarded  by  caravan  to  Teheran  through  Kermanshah  and 
Hamadan.  Bushire  is  connected  by  way  of  Shiraz  with  Isfahan 
and  Kerman,  and  Bunder  Abbas  with  Yezd  and  Kerman.  From 
Kerman,  caravan  routes  lead  to  Isfahan  by  Yezd,  and  to  Meshed 
by  Birjand.  Meshed  is  also  connected  directly  with  Yezd,  and, 
by  a  long  caravan  route,  with  Nushki  on  a  branch  of  the  railway 
from  Karachi  to  Chaman. 

Commerce. — Persia  transacts  the  bulk  of  its  foreign  trade  with 
Russia  and  the  British  Empire  ;  and,  as  regards  the  northern  part 
of  the  country,  at  least,  Russia  is  much  more  advantageously 
situated  than  either  Great  Britain  or  India.  Among  the  more 
important  articles  imported  are  cotton  goods,  sugar,  and  tea, 
which  together  account  for  over  60  per  cent,  of  the  total  imports. 
In  the  supply  of  cotton  goods.  Great  Britain  comes  first,  with 
Russia  second,  and  British  India  third  ;  sugar  is  largely  of  Russian 
origin,  while  tea  comes  mainly  from  India,  but  partly  from  China 
by  way  of  Russia.  Among  the  exports  of  Persia  are  raw  cotton, 
dried  fruits,  carpets,  rice,  opium,  silk,  and  gums.  Russia  is  the 
chief  purchaser  of  raw  cotton,  fruits,  and  rice,  and  along  with 
Turkey  takes  the  bulk  of  the  carpets ;  silk  goes  mainly  to  France 
and  Italy ;  opium  to  Turkey  and  China  ;  and  gum  to  various 
countries.  For  the  five  years  1906-10,  the  average  value  of  the 
imports  amounted  to  £7,900,000,  of  which  Russia  suppHed  almost 
50  per  cent,  and  the  British  Empire  about  36  per  cent.  During  the 
same  period  the  exports  averaged  £6,500,000,  of  which  two-thirds 


PERSIA  AND  AFGHANISTAN  219 

went  to  Russia  and  one-tenth  to  Great  Britain,  India,  and  other 
parts  of  the  Empire. 

Afghanistan 

The  eastern  part  of  the  Iranian  plateau  belongs  to  Afghanistan 
which  has  an  area  of  about  246,000  square  miles.  The  Hindu  Kush 
and  its  outliers  form  the  northern  boundary  of  the  plateau,  and  run 
across  the  country  separating  the  basins  of  the  Oxus  and  the  Hari- 
rud  from  those  of  the  Indus  and  the  Helmand.  Except  in  the  north 
and  west,  the  elevation  of  the  land  is  generally  over  4,000  feet  above 
sea-level,  while  the  mountain-ranges  rise  to  15,000  or  20,000  feet. 
Chmatic  conditions  are,  therefore,  determined  by  altitude  rather 
than  by  latitude.  The  winters  are  generally  cold,  and  over  consider- 
able areas  snow  lies  for  several  months  each  year ;  even  at  Kabul 
the  mean  temperature  for  January  is  below  freezing-point.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  summers  are  hot  and  dry.  The  total  precipita- 
tion, which  does  not  exceed  15  inches,  falls  in  the  form  of  snow  in 
winter,  and  of  rain  in  spring. 

The  crops,  which  are  frequently  grown  with  the  aid  of  irrigation, 
include  the  ordinary  cereals  and  rice,  European  vegetables,  temper- 
ate and  sub-tropical  fruits,  tobacco  and  cotton  ;  but  as  a  rule  the 
Afghan  peoples  are  pastorahsts  rather  than  agriculturists,  and  their 
main  wealth  lies  in  their  flocks  and  herds.  Horses,  camels,  cattle, 
sheep,  and  goats  are  all  reared  in  large  numbers.  Manufactures  are 
of  comparatively  little  importance,  though  silk  goods  are  woven 
at  Herat  and  Kandahar,  carpets  are  made  round  Herat,  and  coats 
are  fashioned  from  sheep-skins  throughout  the  country.  Minerals, 
including  coal,  silver,  copper,  and  lead,  are  known  to  exist,  but 
so  far  little  has  been  done  to  develop  them. 

The  chief  imports  are  textiles  from  Russia  and  British  India,  and 
tea,  sugar,  and  hardware  from  the  latter  country.  The  exports 
include  raw  silk,  which  is  produced  in  the  districts  bordering  the 
Oxus  and  is  sent  to  Persia  and  Turkestan,  wool  forwarded  to  Persia 
en  route  for  Russia,  France,  and  America,  and  fruits,  carpets,  wool, 
and  coats  exported  to  British  India.  A  considerable  amount  of 
trade  between  Persia,  Turkestan,  Afghanistan,  and  India  is  stiU 
carried  on  by  nomadic  Afghans  known  as  Powindas,  who  descend 
into  India  by  the  Gomal  Pass,  cross  the  Oxus  to  Bokhara,  and  go 
to  Persia  by  Meshed. 


CHAPTER    XXIII 

india  and  ceylon 

India 

The  main  physical  regions  of  India  may  be  comprehended  at  a 
glance.  On  the  north-west,  north,  and  north-east  lie  the  great 
mountainous  borderlands,  and  separating  them  from  the  plateau 
of  peninsular  India  is  the  wide  Indo-Gangetic  depression.  From 
the  Pamirs  the  Himalayas  extend  in  the  form  of  a  scimitar  as  far  as 
the  great  bend  of  the  Brahmaputra,  beyond  which  the  mountain 
system  of  Burma  runs  in  parallel  ranges  from  north  to  south.  To 
the  south-west  of  the  Pamirs,  the  borderland  consists  in  the  north 
of  part  of  the  Hindu  Kush  and  its  offshoots,  and  in  the  south  of 
the  parallel  and  concentric  ridges  of  Baluchistan,  which  rise  in  the 
Sulaiman  and  Kirthar  ranges  to  hills  of  considerable  height.  Be- 
tween the  Himalayas  and  the  north-west  borderland  certain  great 
physical  differences  ought  to  be  noted.  The  former  are  higher  and 
more  continuous,  and  are  formed  of  rocks  of  more  ancient  origin 
than  are  found  in  the  latter  except  in  the  Hindu  Kush.  The  passes 
across  the  Himalayas  are  few  and  difficult,  while  to  the  south-west 
of  the  Pamirs  there  are  several  routes  by  which  India  may  be 
entered  with  comparative  ease.  In  Burma  the  mountains  appear 
to  correspond  in  age  to  those  of  the  north-west  borderland. 

The  Indo-Gangetic  plains  may  be  considered  as  consisting  of  the 
basins  of  the  Indus  and  the  Ganges  below  the  1,000-foot  contour 
line.  The  earth  movements,  which  led  to  the  upheaval  of  the  lofty 
Himalayas  in  the  north,  led  likewise  to  the  formation  of  a  great 
depression  further  south.  This  depression  has  gradually  been 
filled  up  by  the  alluvium  carried  down  by  the  rivers  draining  into 
it,  a  process  of  land  building  still  being  carried  on  in  different 
parts  of  the  region. 

The  general  character  of  peninsular  India,  which  is  the  oldest 
land  mass  of  the  country,  is  that  of  a  plateau  with  a  gradual  slope 
from  west  to  east.  On  the  west  it  is  buttressed  by  the  lofty  wall 
of  the  Western  Ghats,  between  which  and  the  sea  lies  a  narrow 
coastal  plain.  The  so-called  Eastern  Ghats  merely  form  the  low 
escarpment  of  the  plateau,  which  stands  back  some  distance  from 
-~^-  .  220 

y     -> — 


INDIA  AND   CEYLON  221 

the  Bay  of  Bengal,  so  that  the  coastal  plain  is  much  wider  than  on  the 
west.  The  surface  of  the  plateau  is  generally  an  area  of  open  valleys 
and  wide  plains,  broken  up  by  a  number  of  ridges  running  eastwards 
from  the  Western  Ghats.  Over  the  greater  part  of  this  region 
the  rocks  are  of  Archaean  age,  but  the  great  volcanic  outbursts, 
which  took  place  at  the  end  of  Cretaceous  and  in  early  Tertiary 
times,  have  covered  in  the  north-west  an  area  over  200,000  square 
miles  in  extent  with  igneous  rocks,  generally  known  as  Deccan 
trap.  In  various  parts  of  .the  peninsula,  but  especially  in  the  basins 
of  the  Son  and  Godavari,  there  are  patches  of  the  Gondwana 
series  formed  during  Carboniferous  and  later  times,  which  are 
of  especial  importance  as  they  contain  the  bulk  of  the  coal  supplies 
of  India.  Much  of  the  east  and  part  of  the  west  coastal  plain  consist 
of  post-Tertiary  deposits. 

The  soils  of  these  different  regions  vary  greatly  in  different 
parts  of  the  country.  The  alluvium  of  the  Indo-Gangetic  valley 
and  of  the  coastal  plains  is,  as  a  general  rule,  the  most  productive, 
but  it  varies  in  character  from  drift  sands,  on  which  nothing  will 
grow,  to  clays  so  stiff  that  they  cannot  be  drained.  The  Deccan 
trap  furnishes  in  the  upland  regions  a  poor  and  infertile  soil,  but 
in  the  lowlands  it  affords  a  deep,  black  soil  of  a  pecuhar  consistency, 
which  makes  it  very  retentive  of  moisture  and  thus  renders  it 
especially  valuable  in  these  districts  where  the  rainfall  is  not  great. 
The  soils  derived  from  the  Archaean  rocks  also  vary  greatly  in 
character  and  fertility,  but,  except  in  the  valley  regions,  they  may, 
as  a  general  rule,  be  classed  as  poor. 

Climate. — India  falls  within  the  rnojisoo.n_ region  qf^  Asi^i  ^^^ 
its  cHmate  is  mainly  controlled  by  that  fact.  Two  seasons  may  be 
recognised  :  the  4rY,  or  north-east  monsoon  lasts  from  the  middle 
of  December  to  the  end  of  May,  and  the  wet,  or  south-west  monsoon, 
from  the  end  of  May  to  the  middle  of  December.  During  the  first 
part  of  the  dry  monsoon  a  belt  of  high  pressure  stretches  across  Asia 
but  from  the  outflowing  cold  winds  India  is  protected  by  the  Hima- 
layas. In  January,  its  actual  mean  temperature  ranges  from  over 
75°F.  in  the  south  to  less  than  55°F.  in  the  north-west.  As  pressure 
is  therefore  highest  in  the  north-west,  winds  flow  down  the 
Gangetic  plains  in  a  south-easterly  direction,  and,  veering  round 
by  north  over  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  blow  across  southern  India  from 
the  north-east.     While  crossing  the  ocean  they  pick  up  a  certain 


.>^s^- 


222  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 


amount  of  moisture  which  they  deposit  on  the  southern  part  of 
the  east  coast  and  in  Ceylon.  At  the  same  time  there  is  a  slight 
amount  of  precipitation  on  the  Himalayas  and  in  northern  India, 
as  a  result  of  storms  in  the  upper  air  current  moving  from  the 
equator  towards  the  north. 

During  the  second  half  of  the  period  under  consideration  tem- 
perature rises,  and  in  April  the  greater  part  of  the  country  has  an 
actual  mean  of  over  80°F.  India  becomes  relatively  a  low-pressure 
area,  so  that  the  north-east  monsoon  blowing  over  the  ocean  is 
weakened,  and  winds  blow  inland  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and 
the  Arabian  Sea.  As  these  winds  are  saturated  with  moisture, 
considerable  precipitation  takes  place,  chiefly  in  Malabar, 
Tenasserim,  Bengal,  and  Assam. 

When  the  low-pressure  area  over  Northern  India  and  adjacent 
lands  closes  up  with  the  equatorial  low-pressure  belt  during  the 
summer  months,  the  atmospheric  conditions  are  entirely  changed. 
The  north-east  monsoon  disappears  and  its  place  is  taken  by  the 
south-east  trades,  which  are  sucked  across  the  equator  and  reach 
India  as  the  south-west  monsoon.  This  is  heavily  charged  with 
moisture  and  brings  to  the  country  about  90  per  cent,  of  its  total 
rainfall.  One  branch  of  the  current  strikes  the  Western  Ghats 
upon  which  it  deposits  much  rain ;  it  then  crosses  the  Deccan,  to 
which,  however,  it  only  brings  occasional  showers ;  and  finally  it 
unites  with  the  other  branch  of  the  monsoon  current  which  has 
advanced  up  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  This  latter  branch  is  directed 
in  the  first  instance  towards  Burma  and  Tenasserim,  but  part  of 
it  is  deflected,  first  by  the  Arakan  Hills,  and  later  by  the  Himalayas, 
so  that  it  passes  in  a  north-westerly  direction  up  the  basin  of  the 
Ganges,  and  into  that  of  the  Indus.  Here  it  is  j  oined  by  the  northern 
part  of  the  Arabian  Sea  current  which,  on  account  of  the  low 
elevation  and  great  heat  of  the  land,  has  passed  over  western 
Rajputana  without  depositing  much  moisture  except  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  Aravalli  range. 

June,  and  more  particularly  July  and  August,  are  the  months 
of  heaviest  rainfall.  In  September  the  monsoon  begins  to  withdraw 
southward,  as  the  low-pressure  area  over  the  land  is  gradually 
filled  up,  and  a  shallow  depression  over  the  Bay  alone  remains. 
This  depression,  which  gradually  moves  southward,  sucks  in  the 
south-westerly  winds  so  that  they  blow  on  to  the  east  coast  of 


5ou 


Wtsr  BoKVtKLUMO 


5o/i.  T?£<;/orf     ^ 
Coast 


NATURAL    REGIONS    OF   INDIA 


224  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

peninsular  India,  where  they  deposit  considerable  moisture.  By 
the  middle  of  December  this  depression  has  passed  out  of  the  Bay, 
and  the  conditions  of  the  north-east  monsoon  again  prevail  over 
the  whole  Indian  area. 

Vegetation. — ^A  division  of  India  into  vegetation  regions  can  best 
be  made  on  the  basis  of  the  physical  and  climatic  regions  already 

^^scussed.  The  Himalayas  may  be  subdivided  into  an  eastern 
and  a  western  section.  The  first  of  these — to  the  east  of  Nepal — 
faces  the  advancing  monsoon  current  and  has,  therefore,  a  heavy 
rainfall.  The  lower  slopes  are  covered  with  a  dense  tropical  forest, 
in  which  the  sac,  magnolia,  and  various  kinds  of  oaks,  palms,  and 

^bamboos  are  all  found.  The  temperate  zone,  which  lies  between 
6,500  and  11,500  feet  above  sea  level,  contains  deciduous  trees 
such  as  the  oak,  maple,  and  magnolia ;  coniferous  trees,  such 
as  the  silver  fir ;  and  shrubs,  such  as  the  rhododendron.  The 
alpine  zone,  at  a  height  of  12,000  feet  and  over,  has  but  a  few 
coniferous  trees.  The  Western  Himalayas,  with  their  higher 
latitude  and  drier  and  cooler  climate,  are  less  richly  endowed,  but 
the  general  character  of  the  vegetation  is  the  same.  The  tropical 
forest,  indeed,  is  lower,  and  does  not  extend  beyond  the  Indus, 
but,  owing  to  the  greater  breadth  of  the  mountains,  the  alpine 
zone  is  more  fully  developed.  The  Indus  Plain,  with  its  low 
rainfall,  has  but  a  scanty  vegetation,  which  rapidly  disappears 
as  the  desert  is  approached.  Trees,  such  as  the  tamart^  and 
acacia,  are  found  chiefly  in  the  neighbourhood  of  rivers,  and  on 
the  flanks  of  the  Himalayas  and  the  AravaUi  hills ;  elsewhere  the  land 
is  covered  with  a  low,  herbaceous  vegetation  which  is  burnt  up 
during  the  dry  season.      The  Gangetic  Plain  may  be  subdivided 

— according  to  the  humidity  of  its  different  parts.  West  of  the  great 
bend  of  the  Ganges  at  Rajmahal,  the  indigenous  vegetation  is  that  of 
a  dry  country  ;  in  the  extreme  west  it  is  continuous  with  that  of 
the  Indus  plain,  while  further  east  such  trees  as  exist  are  leafless 
during  the  dry  season,  and  the  grass  is  burnt  up.  East  of  Rajmahal 
where  the  moisture  is  much  greater,  the  mango,  fig,  bamboo,  and 
different  varieties  of  palm  all  flourish,  while  in  the  Sundarbans,  or 
lower  part  of  the  delta,  the  vegetation  is  luxuriant,  and  mangroves 
and  other  evergreen  trees  abound.  The  indigenous  vegetation  of 
the  Gangetic  plain,  it  ought  to  be  noted,  is  only  of  secondary  impor- 
tance to  that  of  the  cultivated  lands.      The  west  coast,  from 


INDIA   AND    CEYLON  225 

southern  Gujarat  to  Cape  Comorin,  has,  on  the  whole,  a  heavy 
rainfall,  and,  except  in  the  most  northerly  parts,  is  covered  with 
a  dense  evergreen  forest  which  includes  valuable  timber  trees 
such  as  teak,  ebony,  and  sandal-wpod,  and  many  varieties  of  palms 
and  bamboos.  The  west  coast  vegetation  is  carried  eastwards 
across  the  Deccan  on  the  loftier  parts  of  the  plateau,  but  elsewhere 
the  lower  rainfall  only  permits  the  existence  of  deciduous  forests, 
jungles  of  small  trees,  herbaceous  vegetation,  and  grassland.  The 
Coromandel  coast  vegetation  has  the  same  general  character  as 
the  Deccan,  but  the  presence  of  dry  evergreen  plants  differentiates 
it  to  some  extent.  Burma  is  partly  covered  with  forest  of  a  tropical 
character.  In  the  centre  of  the  country,  where  the  rainfall  is  lower, 
there  are  areas  of  deciduous  trees  and  grassland,  but  round 
the  coasts  and  on  the  mountain  slopes  there  is  a  wet  evergreen 
forest. 

The  Peoples  of  India. — ^As  the  population  of  India  consists  of 
many  diverse  elements,  and  as  there  is  a  remarkably  close  connection 
between  the  different  geographical  regions  of  the  country  and  the 
inhabitants  of  each,  it  may  be  as  well  to  sketch  briefly  their 
distribution  before  proceeding  to  divide  India  into  natural  regions. 
The  scheme  here  adopted  is  that  suggested  by  Sir  H.  H.  Risley 
in  the  Report  on  the  Census  of  India,  but  it  must  always  be  borne 
in  mind  that  the  study  of  ethnical  questions  has  not  advanced 
sufficiently  far  to  aUow  absolutely  definite  statements  to  be  made. 

It  is  believed  that  at  one  time  the  whole  of  India  was  occupied 
by  people  of  Drayidian  stock  who  have  gradually  been  pushed 
back  into  the  most  inaccessible  and  least  fertile  parts  of 
peninsular  India.  These  people  are  distinguished  physically  by 
their  black  skin,  long  head,  broad  nose,  and  low  stature,  and  mentally 
i  by  their  primitive  social  and  religious  ideas.  It  would  seem  that 
they  represent  the  earHer  inhabitants  of,  the  country. 

The  invading  race  is  supposed  to  have  entered  India  by  the  north- 
west. In  the  Punjab  and  Rajputana  there  is  found  an  entirely 
different  type  from  the  Dravidian — a  people  of  light  brown  colour, 
with  a  relatively  long  head,  straight,  finely  cut  nose,  a  long  narrow 
face,  high  stature,  and  well-proportioned  figure.  To  this  people 
the  name  Indo- Aryan  has  been  given,  and  they  are  probably  con- 
nected with  the  Mediterranean  race.  In  the  plains  of  the  Ganges 
and  the  Jumna,  from  the  eastern  frontier  of  the  Punjab  to  the 


226  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

southern  extremity  of  Bihar,  the  prevailing  type  suggests  an  inter- 
mixture of  Indo-Aryan  and  Dravidian  blood.  The  upper  classes 
approach  the  former  in  physical  characteristics,  the  lower  classes 
the  latter.  It  is  noteworthy,  too,  that  it  is  among  the  Aryo- 
Dravidian  peoples  that  the  caste  system  has  been  most  fuUji 
developed. 

While  many  invasions  took  place  by  way  of  the  north-wes 
borderland,  the  Himalayas  prevented  anything  but  a  slow  infiltra^ 
tion  of  the  Mongol  peoples,  who  are  found  along  its  lower  slopes 
Further  east,  however,  where  the  Brahmaputra  and  the  rivers  oi 
Burma  offered  easier  means  of  access,  there  was  a  larger  influx, 
and  Burma  has  an  essentially  Mongol  pop\ilation.  The  delta  oi 
the  Ganges,  on  the  other  hand,  is  occupied  by  a  Mongolo-Dravidian 
people.  It  would  appear  that  the  Dravidians,  retreating  before 
the  Aryan  invaders,  were  driven  into  the  swampy  lands  of  Bengal, 
where  they  intermingled  with  Mongol  tribes  entering  India  by 
the  Brahmaputra. 

An  area  of  broad-headedness  extends  along  the  west  of  India 
from  the  western  Punjab  through  the  Deccan  southwards  as  far 
as  Coorg.  In  many  places  it  coincides  in  a  remarkable  degree  with 
the  more  fertile  districts  of  the  Black  Soil  region.  Here  it  is  evident 
that  the  original  Dravidian  stock  has  been  powerfully  modified  by 
the  infusion  of  a  foreign  element,  and  it  has  been  suggested  that^ 
after  the  settlement  of  the  Indo- Aryans  in  the  Punjab  and  Rajputana, 
various  nomadic  peoples,  generally  known  as  Scythians,  made 
their  way  into  India  from  the  steppe-lands  of  Asia,  and,  finding  theii 
progress  eastwards  barred  by  the  earlier  invaders,  pushed  theii 
way  to  the  south,  where  they  seized  the  best  lands  still  left  to  the 
Dravidians,  and  to  a  certain  extent  intermingled  with  that  people 
forming  what  is  now  known  as  the  Scytho-Dravidian  type. 

Lastly,  in  the  regions  of  the  north-west  borderland  are  the  Turko- 
Iranian  peoples,  formed  by  an  intermixture  of  Turki  and  Persian 
elements.  They  are  broadheaded,  but  have  a  fair  complexion, 
stature  above  the  average,  and  a  prominent  but  moderately  narrow 
nose.  They  represent  the  invading  tribes  who  came  last  and  hac 
their  further  progress  into  India  barred  by  the  earlier  settlers. 

In  conclusion,  it  must  be  noticed  that,  although  the  peoples  oi 
India  are  distributed  on  a  geographical  basis,  no  one  type  is  i 
exclusive  possession  of  the  region  to  which  it  is  referred. 


INDIA  AND   CEYLON  227 

The  Natural  Regions  of  India. — In  dividing  India  into  natural 
regions  it  is  obvious  that  physical  conditions  must  first  be  con- 
sidered. The  mountainous  borderlands,  the  Indo-Gangetic  plain, 
and  the  plateau  of  peninsular  India  form  three  entirely  distinct 
areas,  the  economic  development  of  each  of  which  is  quite  unlike 
that  of  the  others.  The  first  of  these — the  mountainous  border- 
lands— must  be  further  divided.  It  has  already  been  shown  that 
there  are  considerable  physical  differences  between  the  Himalayas 
and  the  frontier  regions  of  the  north-west.  The  position  of  each 
with  regard  to  the  monsoon  current,  moreover,  has  led  to  a  heavy 
rainfall  in  the  one,  and  to  a  very  low  rainfall  in  the  other,  and  as  a 
result  each  has  its  distinctive  vegetation. 

Physically,  the  Indo-Gangetic  plains  seem  to  form  one  natural 
region,  but  it  is  impossible  to  neglect  the  influence  of  great  rivers, 
like  the  Indus  and  the  Ganges  with  their  tributaries,  which  tend 
to  give  a  distinct  individuality  to  the  countries  through  which 
they  flow.  It  is  better,  therefore,  to  recognise  the  Indus  plain 
and  the  Ganges  plain  (including  that  of  the  Brahmaputra)  as 
separate  natural  regions,  each  of  which  must  be  further  subdivided 
according  to  differences  in  physical  structure,  humidity,  vegetation, 
and  potentiahties  for  economic  development. 

The  whole  of  the  Ganges  plain  is  composed  of  alluvium,  but  to  the 
west  of  the  great  bend  at  Rajmahal  the  rivers  have  generally 
sufiicient  velocity  to  carry  off  their  silt,  while  to  the  east  the  slope 
is  so  gentle  that  they  are  in  many  cases  unable  to  do  so.  Flooding 
consequently  takes  place,  and  the  surface  of  the  land  consists  of 
recent  alluvium.  In  the  west,  on  the  other  hand,  old  alluvial  soil 
prevails.  A  further  subdivision,  based  chiefly  upon  rainfall,  may 
be  made.  West  of  Allahabad  the  old  alluvial  soils  have  generally 
a  rainfall  of  less  than  40  inches,  while  to  the  east  of  Allahabad 
the  precipitation  is  between  40  and  50  inches.  On  the  recent 
alluvium,  as  far  east  as  the  Brahmaputra,  between  50  and  75 
inches  of  rain  fall,  while  beyond  that  river  the  amount  is  from  75 
to  100  inches. 

Physically  the  Indus  plain  is  not  unlike  that  of  the  Ganges, 
but  in  chmate  and  vegetation  it  differs  to  a  great  extent.  The 
influence  of  the  monsoon  is  sliglrt:,  except  in  the  northern  plains 
of  the  Punjab,  where  along  a  comparatively  narrow  belt,  which 
really  forms  an  extension  of  the  western  division  of  the  Ganges 

15— {1326) 


228  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

plain,  and  which  stretches  from  the  Jumna  to  the  Jhelum,  the 
rainfall  varies  from  40  inches  in  the  east  to  15  or  20  inches  in  the 
west.  To  the  west  and  south-west  lies  a  dry  area  with  a  rainfall 
from  5  to  15  inches,  or  even  less.  For  a  discussion  of  economic 
potentialities,  this  region  may  be  divided.  In  the  basins  of  the 
rivers  forming  the  Panjnad,  and  in  that  of  the  Indus,  a  certain 
amount  of  settlement,  based  on  irrigation  from  rivers  or  wells,  is 
possible,  but  in  the  Thar  or  Indian  desert  a  small  nomadic 
population  is  aU  that  can  find  subsistence. 

The  third  great  physical  region  is  that  of  peninsular  India.  Here 
the  east  and  west  coastal  plains  may  be  distinguished  by  their 
topography  and  chmate  from  the  Deccan  proper,  where  the  region 
covered  by  the  Black  Soil,  the  north-eastern  Archaean  area  with 
its  high  rainfall,  and  the  southern  Archaean  area  with  its  low 
rainfall,  must  all  be  treated  separately. 

The  Himalayan  Region. — Except  indirectly,  the  Himalayan 
region  is  of  little  economic  importance.  The  physical  difficulties 
facing  the  cultivator  are  naturally  great,  and  in  many  places  means 
of  communication  are  practically,  if  not  entirely,  wanting.  Hence 
it  is  that  the  Mfingoloid-tribes,  who  form  the  bulk  of  the  population, 
add  very  little  to  the  output  of  the  country.  Rice  and  other  food 
jgraiijs  are  grown  on  the  outer  ranges  such  as  the  Siwaliks,  and  in 
the  hot,  moist  valleys,  between  these  and  the  Himalayas  proper, 
chillies,  turmeric,  and  ginger  are  cultivated.  In  the  higher  hills 
wheat  and  buckwheat  form  the  staple  crops.  The  vale  of  Kashmir 
in  the  north-west  is  noted  for  fruit  and  DarjeeUng  has  considerable 
jea  plantations.  The  numerous  hill  stations,  used  as  health  resorts, 
make  life  in  India  bearable  to  the  European. 

The  North-West  Borderland  includes  the  mountainous 
districts  of  the  North-West  Frontier  Province,, British  Baluchistan, 
and  the  Baluchistan  Agency.  The  region  is  an  upland  one,  and, 
as  agriculture  is  possible  only  in  the  river  valleys,  the  population 
is  scanty,  being  less  than  100  to  the  square  mile.  The  rainfall  is 
under  10  inches  per  year,  and  irrigation  from  mountain  streams 
is  generally  an  absolute  necessity.  Among  the  more  important 
crops  are  wheat,  millet,  and  barley,  but  in  the  Makran  dates 
provide  the  staple  food  crop  of  the  people.  Sheep  and  cattle  are 
bred,  and  wool  and  hides  are  exported.  The  chijf  commercia,l 
importance  of  the  region,  however,  Hes  in  the  fact  that  it  is  crossed^ 


INDIA  AND   CEYLON  229 

^„the  main  trade  routes  which  connect  Central  Asia  and  Afghanistan 
with  India.  Until  within  recent  years  the  inhabitants,  chiefly  of 
Turko-Iranian  stock,  found  their  gieatest  interest  in  raiding  the 
more  peaceful  occupants  of  the  neighbouring  lowlands.  To  prevent 
such  raids,  and  to  keep  open  the  passes,  British  influence  has 
gradually  been  extended  outwards  to  the  borders  of  Afghanistan, 
The  Ganges  Plain. — Throughout  the  whole  of  the  Ganges  plain 
there  is  a  dense  population,  and  agriculturejs  the  chief  occupation  of 
the  people,  but  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  pursued,  and  the 
crops  grown,  vary  from  one  division  to  another.  In  the  western 
section  of  the  old  alluvium,  where  the  rainfall  is  generally  less  than 
40  inches  per  year,  irrigation  on  an  extensive  scale  has  been  found 
necessary.  ^^The  Upper  Ganges  Canal  waters  about  1,000,000  acres  in 
the  Upper  Doab,  while  the  Lower  Ganges  Canal  is  designed  to  water 
about  800,000  acres  in  the  Lower  Doab.  In  addition  to  these 
and  other  canals,  there  are  hundreds  of  thousands  of  wells,  and  the 
natural  depressions  in  the  alluvial  plain  have  also  been  utilised  for 
the  purpose  of  storing  water.  As  a  result,  the  population, 
amounting  to  410  per  square  mile,  is  much  larger  than  might 
have  been  expected.  The  principal  food  grains  of  the  region  are 
rice,  which  is  grown  with  the  aid  of  irrigation  during  the  rains,  on 
the  heaviest  soils  ;  wheat,  which  is  a  winter  crop  ;  and  bajra  and 
juar,  varieties  of  millet,  which  form  the  staple  food  of  the  people. 
Gram  or  chick  pea  and  various  oilseeds  are  also  raised.  Cptton 
is  the  most  important  fibre  and  covers  about  3  per  cent,  of  the 
cropped  land,  and  sugar-cane  occupies  a  like  area.  In  the  United 
Provinces,  which  may  be  taken  as  typical  of  the  region  under 
consideration,  66  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  dependent  upon 
agriculture  for  their  livelihood. 

In  the  eastern  section  of  the  old  alluviurn,  where  the  rainfall  is 
greater,  rice  becomes  the  staple  food  of  the  population,  and  occupies 
about  one-half  of  the  cropped  area.  The  rainfall  has  to  be  supple- 
mented by  irrigation,  which  is  easy,  as  the  broken  surface  of 
the  land  permits  of  the  storage  of  water  obtained  by  damming  the 
smaller  streams.  The  population  of  this  region,  which  is  about 
490  to  the  square  mile,  is  chiefly  engaged  in  agriculture.  Food 
crops  (rice  and  the  cereals  of  the  previous  region)  are  almost 
exclusively  raised,  but  there  is  little  or  no  surplus  supply  for  export, 
and  the  people  are,  as  a  rule,  poor. 


230  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

In  the  third  region — the  recent  alluvium — the  surface  of  the  land 
is  generally  level,  the  rainfall  is  great,  and  a  considerable  part  of 
the  country  does  not  require  artificial  irrigation.  Hence  rice 
and  jute  constitute  the  staple  crops,  the  two  together  occupying 
not  less  than  75  per  cent,  of  the  cropped  area.  Of  these,  jute  is 
commercially  the  more  important,  as  it  provides  the  Bengal  agri- 
culturist with  a  surplus  crop  which  he  is  able  to  sell,  and  his  economic 
position  is  accordingly  somewhat  better  than  in  the  districts 
previously  discussed.  The  density  of  population  is  greater  than  in 
any  other  part  of  the  Ganges  plain,  being  over  550  per  square  mile, 
and,  outside  of  the  towns,  agriculture  engages  between  70  and 
80  per  cent,  of  the  people. 

The  Brahmaputra  valley  north  of  the  delta  (along  with  which 
may  be  taken  the  upper  part  of  its  tributary,  the  Surma,  and  the 
intervening  hills)  has  generally  a  rainfall  of  over  75  inches,  and  in 
the  hill  regions  of  over  100  inches.  Rige  is  still  the  staple  food  of  the 
people,  but  X^  is  the  most  important  commercial  product  of  the 
region.  Formerly,  it  was  grown  mainly  on  the  lower  slopes  of  the 
hills,  which  were  beUeved  to  be  particularly  adapted  to  it,  but  many 
of  these  situations  have  been  abandoned  in  favour  of  reclaimed 
swamp  lands,  so  that  it  is  in  the  Brahmaputra  and  Surma  valleys 
that  the  tea  plantations  of  Assam  and  Eastern  Bengal  (covering 
about  700  square  miles,  or  85  per  cent,  of  the  Indian  tea  area)  are  now 
chiefly  found.  The  heavy  rainfall  of  these  districts  constitutes 
their  chief  advantage  for  the  cultivation  of  the  tea  plant  which 
grows  best  with  an  annual  precipitation  approaching  100  inches. 
The  density  of  population  in  the  Brahmaputra  valley  is  low  and 
does  not  exceed  100  to  the  square  mile.  This  is  due,  partly  to 
historical  conditions,  and  partly  to  the  fact  that  the  land  is  not  so 
suitable  for  the  cultivation  of  rice  as  it  is  in  the  delta  of  Bengal. 
Agricultural  operations  are  practically  the  only  pursuit  of  the 
inhabitants. 

The  Gangetic  plain  is  the  most  densely  populated  part  of  India, 
and  probably  contains  about  40  per  cent,  of  its  inhabitants.  The 
majority  of  the  people  are  engaged  in  agricultural  pursuits  or  in 
domestic  industries,  and  only  a  small  proportion  live  in  towns. 
Of  these  the  most  important  are  on  the  old  alluvial  soil,  where  the 
diversity  of  products  and  favourable  climate  made  the  country 
particularly  attractive  to  the  invaders  from  the  north-west,  and 


INDIA  AND  CEYLON  231 

where  the  confluences  of  great  rivers  afforded  suitable  sites  for  the 
growth  of  urban  communities.  On  the  recent  alluvium,  flooded 
every  year,  and  occupied  by  a  people  of  a  lower  type  of  civilisation, 
the  conditions  were  less  favourable.  Hence  it  is  that  while  in  the 
United  Provinces,  which  may  be  considered  typical  of  the  first 
region,  11  per  cent,  of  the  population  live  in  towns,  in  Bengal, 
which  is  typical  of  the  second,  only  5  per  cent,  are  town  dwellers. 
In  the  Brahmaputra  valley  the  proportion  is  lower  still  and  only 
amounts  to  3  per  cent. 

The  more  important  towns  include  Delhi,  Agra,  Allahabad, 
Benares,  Patna,  and  Calcutta.  Delhi  is  on  the  Jumna  at  the 
very  apex  of  the  triangular  plateau  which  forms  the  northern 
part  of  peninsular  India,  and  hence  is  a  meeting  place  of  lines  of 
communication  from  the  south-east,  the  south-west,  and  the 
north-west.  Agra,  in  a  fertile  part  of  the  Jumna  valley,  was  formerly 
the  centre  of  the  empire  of  Akbar,  and  is  still  engaged  in  such  in- 
dustries as  marble-inlay  work,  gem-setting,  and  the  preparation  of 
mosaics,  accomplishments  learned  by  its  earlier  artisans  during  the 
building  of  the  Tajmahal  by  the  Emperor  Shah  Jehan.  Allahabad, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Ganges  and  Jumna,  is  now  the  meeting 
place  of  railways  from  Calcutta,  Peshawar,  and  Bombay.  Benares, 
the  sacred  city  of  the  Hindus,  is  dependent  on  the  pilgrims  who  flock 
thither ;  Patna,  a  few  miles  below  the  junction  of  the  Son  with 
the  Ganges,  is  the  centre  of  the  opium  manufacture  ;  and  Calcutta, 
on  the  Hooghly,  a  distributary  of  the  Ganges,  was,  until  lately, 
the  capital  of  British  India.  Calautta^-although  situated  at  the  foot 
of  the  Gangetic  plain,  is  in  some  respects  not  well  placed,  as  the 
navigation  of  the  river  is  difficult,  and  it  owes  its  supreme  importance 
tb  its  selection  as  the  centre  of  British  ..influence.  Within  the 
last  few  years  it  has  become  the  centre  of  an  important,  jute 
manufacturing  industry. 

The  Indus  Plain. — The  first  of  the  regions  into  which  the  Indus 
Plain  may  be  divided — ^the  central  Punjab- — ^is  economically  the 
most  important,  but  it  is  only  able  to  maintain  its  large  popula- 
tion— over  400  to  the  square  mile — by  means  of  an  extensive  and 
well-developed  system  of  irrigation.  As  the  west  and  south-west 
Punjab  and  the  plains  of  the  North-West  Province  also  present 
considerable  facilities  for  irrigation,  these  regions  may  be  considered 
along  with  the  central  Punjab,  notwithstanding  their  lower  rainfall 


232  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

and  much  smaller  population — ^about  130  to  the  square  mile. 
Naturally,  it  is  in  the  drier  regions  that  irrigation  is  most  essential, 
but  only  about  50  per  cent,  of  the  whole  Punjab  (including  the  well- 
watered  mountain  districts)  is  entirely  dependent  on  rainfall.  The 
remainder  of  the  country  obtains  either  the  whole  or  part  of  its , 
water  supply  from  canals  or  from  wells.  Of  the  former,  which  are 
the  more  important,  there  are  over  10,000  miles,  while  of  the  latter 
there  are  hundreds  of  thousands. 

The  principal  crops,  sown  in  the  autumn  and  reaped  in  the  spring 
and  early  summer,  include  wheat,  gram,  and  barley,  while  such 
cereals  as  maize,  millet^  and  rice,  are  sown  during  the  summer  and 
reaped  in  the  autumn.  Of  these,  wheat  is  commercially  the  most 
important,  and  its  rapid  extension  in  the  northern  region  under 
consideration,  where  it  now  covers  over  15,000  square  miles,  is 
largely  the  result  of  the  development  of  the  irrigation  system  of  the 
Punjab.  Cotton  is  also  becoming  important  as  an  export  of  this 
region ;  it  is  of  the  short-stapled  variety  known  as  Bengals,  but 
is  in  much  demand  by  the  Bombay  mills. 

Although  agriculture  is  here,  as  in  other  parts  of  India,  the  chief 
occupation  of  the  people,  it  only  gives  employment  to  about  56 
per  cent,  of  the  labouring  population,  and  this  percentage,  lower 
than  that  of  the  Ganges  plain,  reflects  the  less  favourable  conditions 
under  which  it  is  carried  on.  On  the  other  hand,  manufactures  are 
more  important.  At  the  last  census  about  20  per  cent,  of  the  work- 
ing population  were  engaged  in  these,  as  against  15  per  cent,  in  the 
United  Provinces,  and  12  per  cent,  in  Bengal.  Cotton  spinnings 
is  an  important  domestic  industry,  the  region  itself  supplying 
the  raw  material.  Sheep  are  raised  largely  in  the  south-west 
Punjab,  and  the  nianufacture  oi  wool  ranks  next  to  that  of  cotton. 
Amritsar  is  noted  for  its  carpets,  the  finest  being  made  from  the 
hair  of  the  Tibetan  goat.  The  manufacture  of  gold  and  silver  orna- 
ments, brass  and  copper  ware,  and  pottery,  are  all  carried  on  to  an 
even  greater  extent  than  in  other  parts  of  India.  Within  recent 
years  there  has  also  been  a  considerable  extension  in  the  Punjab 
of  the  modern  factory  system,  and  several  cotton  mills  have  been 
established. 

In  the  basin  of  the  lower.Indus — the  region  known  as  Sind — the 
conditions  of  economic  development  are  much  less  f3.vourable,  and 
the    total    population  is  less  than   70  per  square  mile.     As   the 


INDIA  AND   CEYLON  233 

river  brings  down  more  silt  than  it  is  able  to  carry  to  the  sea,  it  is 
constantly  changing  its  bed,  and  the  whole  area  is  covered  with 
recent  alluvium.  The  deserted  beds  of  the  river  in  many  cases  offer 
favourable  opportunities  for  irrigation,  without  which  agriculture  is 
impossible.  The  crops  are  much  the  same  as  in  the  Punjab,  rice; 
wheat,  and  cotton  being  the  most  important,  but  the  total  output 
is  small. 

In  the  Thar  or  Indian  desert  the  scanty  population  is  more  or  less 
nomadic.  The  wells — the  only  source  of  irrigation — are  not  perma- 
nent, and  as  soon  as  one  runs  dry  the  village  community,  which  has 
settled  about  it,  must  move  elsewhere. 

The  Indus  plain  to  the  east  of  the  river  is  the  home  of  the  Indo- 
Aryan  people,  while  the  Turko-Iranian  stock  is  found  in  the  narrow 
plains  to  the  west.  Climatic  conditions  are  generally  favourable  to 
the  development  of  a  more  vigorous  type  than  in  the  Ganges  plain, 
although  they  do  not  conduce  to  so  dense  a  population,  and  the 
region  probably  does  not  contain  more  than  8  per  cent,  of  the 
population  of  the  whole  country.  The  principal  towns  generally 
have  their  sites  determined  for  them  by  physical  conditions.  A 
number,  of  which  Lahore  is  typical,  have  grown  up  where  the  great 
highway  from  Calcutta  to  Peshawar  crosses  the  rivers  of  the  Punjab, 
while  others,  like  Amritsar,  have  developed  in  fertile  doabs  between 
the  rivers.  Multan,  the  most  important  town  in  the  south-west 
Punjab,  is  at  the  meeting  place  of  a  number  of  the  routes  offered 
by  its  great  rivers.  Hyderabad  stands  on  an  eminence  of  Cretace- 
ous rock  at  the  head  of  the  delta  of  the  Indus,  and  offers  a  fixed 
crossing  point  in  a  region  where,  owing  to  the  shifting  of  the  river, 
such  points  are  few.  Karachi,  to  the  east  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Indus,  owes  its  development  largely  to  the  railways,  which  connect 
it  with  the  Punjab  and  the  North- West  Province,  and  make  it  their 
port ;  it  is  the  Indian  port  nearest  to  Europe. 
/?^  The  West  Coast  Region  extends  from  the  Tapti  to  Cape 
Comorin,  and  consists  of  a  narrow  coastal  plain  backed  by  the 
Western  Ghats.  The  plain,  which  is  broken  up  by  numerous 
ranges  of  foothills,  varies  in  width  from  twenty  to  one  hundred 
miles,  being  as  a  rule  broader  in  the  south  than  in  the  north.  The 
rainfall  averages  over  100  inches  per  year,  while  the  temperature 
is  always  high.  The  whole  region  may  be  divided  into  two  belts, 
the  first  consisting  of  the  plains  and  the  foothills,  and  the  second 


234  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

of  the  western  slopes  of  the  mountains.  The  first  of  these  is  agri- 
culturally the  more  important,  but  the  character  of  its  soil  varies 
greatly  from  place  to  place.  Along  the  coast  it  is  generally  sandy, 
and  suitable  only  for  the  cass-palm  which  is  a  source  of  considerable 
wealth  to  the  villagers.  In  the  river  valleys — more  especially 
inland — ^the  soil  consists  of  rich  alluvial  matter,  and,  aided  by  the 
abundant  rainfall,  it  produces  heavy  crops  otrice.  This  is  the  staple 
food  of  the  region  and  covers  over  60  per  cent,  of  the  cultivated  area. 
On  the  lower  slopes  of  the  intervening  hills  there  are  many  gardens 
in  which  plantain,  mango,  and  pepper  are  grown,  while  on  the  poorer 
soils  of  the  upper  slopes  coarse  grains  alone  thrive.  Wheat,  millet, 
sugar-cane,  and  cotton  are  also  grown  in  favourable  districts 
throughout  the  region.  The  western  slopes  of  the  mountains  are 
generally  covered  with  forest,  the  most  important  trees  of  which 
have  already  been  mentioned.  In  the  Nilgiris  there  are  coffee  and 
tjga^plantations,  and  experiments  are  being  made  in  the  cultivation 
of  rubber. 

Taking  the  West  Coast  region  as  a  whole  the  population  is 
fairly  dense,  amounting  to  between  300  and  400  persons  to 
the  square  mile.  Except  in  the  south  it  consists  mainly  of  people 
of  the  Scytho-Dravidian  stock.  Geographical  conditions  are,  on 
the  whole,  unfavourable  to  the  growth  of  large  towns,  and  Bombay 
alone  is  of  first-rate  importance.  The  growth  of  this  city,  which 
now  has  over  three-quarters  of  a  million  inhabitants,  has  been 
remarkable.  Ceded  to  England  by  Portugal  in  1661,  it  became, 
in  1708,  the  headquarters  of  the  East  India  Company,  the  silting  up 
of  the  harbour  at  Surat  making  that  town  impossible  as  a  base. 
The  barrier  of  the  Western  Ghats  was  long  a  formidable  obstacle  to 
development,  but,  after  the  fall  of  the  Maratha  power,  and  the 
opening  up  of  the  railways  which  brought  it  into  contact  with  the 
rest  of  the  country,  Bombay  began  to  make  rapid  progress.  The 
stoppage,  during  the  Civil  War,  of  the  American  supplies  of  raw 
cotton  to  the  United  Kingdom  gave  a  great  impetus  to  the  export 
trade  of  Bombay,  because  of  the  demand  which  arose  for  ^he  cotton 
grown  on  the  black  soils  of  its  hinterland;  it  also  encouraged 
the  development  of  the  modern  factory  system  in  the  city.  The 
manufacture  of  CQtJtflg  has  continued  to  increase,  and  Bombay  is 
now  the  centre  of  that  industry  in  India.  The  opening  of  the 
Suez  Canal  must  also  be  noted,  as  it  placed  Bombay  in  a  relatively 


INDIA  AND  CEYLON  235 

more  favourable  position  for  trade  with  Europe  than  it  had  formerly 
occupied. 

The  Black  Soil  Region. — ^The  greater  part  of  the  Bombay 
Presidency  south  of  the  Narbada,  along  with  the  detached  district 
of  Kathiawar,  the  Malwa  plateau  in  Central  India,  the  whole  of 
Berar,  the  west  and  centre  of  the  Central  Provinces,  and  the  west 
of  Hyderabad  are  covered  with  a  basaltic  formation  known  as 
Deccan  trap.  The  soil  derived  from  this  rock  by  weathering  is 
often  fertile,  and,  being  peculiarly  tenacious  of  moisture,  is  specially 
adapted  to  the  needs  of  this  part  of  India  where,  except  in  the  Cen- 
tral Provinces,  the  rainfall  is  generally  less  than  40  inches  per 
year.  The  black  cotton  soil,  as  it  is  called,  is,  it  must  be  noted,  not 
continuous  throughout  the  whole  region  of  the  Deccan  trap,  but 
it  serves  to  give  to  its  economic  activities  their  distinctive 
characteristics,  and  entitles  it  to  be  considered  as  a  separate  natural 
region. 

The  most  important  food  grains  are  wheat  and  millet,  except  in 
the  more  humid  Central  Provinces  where  ricg^Js  the  principal 
food  crop.  Wheat  is  exported,  but,  in  the  Central  Provinces  at 
least,  its  cultivation  has  been  largely  abandoned  in  favour  of  that 
^^  ^Q^.9J^  which  is  now  the  chief  commercial  product  of  the 
region,  where  it  covers  over  15,000  square  miles,  or  very  nearly 
two- thirds  of  the  total  area  devoted  to  its  growth  in  India.  But 
although,  on  the  black  soil,  cotton  has  been  grown  for  thousands 
of  years,  it  is  inferior  both  in  quality  and  in  yield.  The  staple  is 
short  and  coarse,  and  the  average  return  per  acre  is  only  about 
100  lbs.  It  is  said,  indeed,  that  within  the  last  century  or  two 
Indian  cotton  has  greatly  deteriorated,  but,  whether  this  be  so  or 
not,  it  remains  true  that  the  quality  of  the  cotton  produced  might 
be  greatly  improved.  Within  recent  years  attempts  have  been 
made  to  do  so,  both  by  the  introduction  of  exotics,  which  have 
thriven  in  their  own  environment,  and  by  the  endeavour  to  breed 
up  native  varieties  to  a  higher  degree  of  productiveness.  The 
first  of  these  methods  seems  to  have  been  a  failure,  and  it  cannot 
be  said  yet  that  the  second  has  proved  a  success;  On  the  Govern- 
ment experimental  farms,  both  the  quality  and  the  yield  have 
been  greatly  improved,  but  whether  it  will  ultimately  be  possible 
to  induce  the  somewhat  careless  Indian  cultivator  to  take  the 
necessary  care  and  trouble  remains  to  be  seen.     It  would  appear. 


236  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

however,  that  it  is  in  the  improvement  of  native  varieties  that  the 
best  hopes  of  Indian  cotton  He. 

The  o^piiim  poppy  has  hitherto  been  cultivated  to  a  considerable 
extent  on  the  black  soil  of  the  Malwa  plateau,  the  greater  part 
of  the  product  being  sent  to  China.  Pulses,  oilseeds,  and  sugar  are 
also  grown  in  many  parts  of  the  Deccan  trap  region.  Stock-raising, 
has  not  reached  a  high  state  of  development.  Cattle  are  foimd 
in  all  parts  of  the  region,  but,  except  when  cHmatic  conditions 
tend  to  the  growth  of  good  grassland,  the  quality  is  poor.  Buffaloes 
are  generally  found  where  the  rainfall  is  heavy,  and  sheep  and  goats 
where  it  is  moderate. 

Throughout  the  whole  region  agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation 
of  the  people,  and,  outside  of  the  industrial  districts,  is  their  only 
important  pursuit.  Besides  the  usual  manufactures  of  most  Indian 
towns,  cotton  mills,  obtaining  their  raw  material  from  the  black 
soil,  have  been  established  in  Broach  at  the  mouth  of  the  Narbada, 
at  Ahmadabad  in  Gujarat,  at  Nagpur  and  Jubbulpore  in  the  Central 
Provinces,  and  at  Hyderabad  in  the  state  of  the  same  name. 

In  that  part  of  the  Bombay  Presidency  which  lies  within  the 
Black  Soil  area  the  people  are,  as  a  rule,  of  Scytho-Dravidian  origin. 
This  race,  as  represented  by  the  Marathas,  extends  into  other  parts 
of  the  region  where,  however,  the  Dravidian  element  generally 
prevails,  more  especially  on  the  poorer  upland  soils.  Indeed,  in 
many  places  the  line  separating  good  and  bad  soils  also  separates 
Maratha  and  Dravidian  peoples.  This  is  especially  noticeable  in 
Hyderabad,  where  the  trap  areas  are  occupied  by  Scytho-Dravidians 
and  the  granitic  and  calcareous  tracts  by  Dravidians. 

North-East  Deccan. — ^The  north-east  part  of  peninsular 
India,  which  contains  the  Chota  Nagpur  and  Orissa  divisions  oi 
Bengal,  the  eastern  part  of  the  Central  Provinces,  and  the  Madras 
Presidency  to  the  west  of  the  escarpment  of  the  plateau  and  to 
the  north  of  the  Godavari,  consists  in  the  main  of  Archaean  rock 
and  the  soil  is,  therefore,  generally  much  poorer  than  in  the  previoui 
region.  On  the  other  hand,  the  frequency  of  cyclonic  storms  ovei 
this  area  during  the  south-west  monsoon  period  gives  it  a  much 
heavier  rainfall,  the  annual  precipitation  over  the  greater  part  o" 
it  exceeding  50  inches.  Accordingly,  it  may  be  considered  as  lying 
outside  the  famine  zone. 

Sicfi  is  the  chief  crop  of  the  region,  but  it  cannot  be  grown  withou 


INDIA  AND   CEYLON  237 

irrigation,  and  it  is  here,  accordingly,  that  tank  irrigation  is  most 
fully  developed.  The  rainfall,  coming  in  cyclonic  bursts,  would 
quickly  run  off  the  land  without  doing  much  good  were  the  various 
channels  by  which  it  escapes  not  dammed  and  the  water  retained 
for  use  as  required.  Cultivation  is,  as  a  result,  confined  chiefly  to 
the  valleys,  and  it  is  there  that  the  bulk  of  the  population  is  found. 
Over  the  whole  area  this  averages  1^  than  200  to  the  square  mile, 
and  consists  in  the  main  of  various  Dravidian  peoples,  the  more 
civilised  being  found  in  the  lowlands  and  the  less  civilised  in  the 
uplands. 

In  the  patches  of  Gondwana  deposits  still  remaining,  notably  in 
those  in  the  basin  of  the  Damodar,  there  are  valuable  co^Jijeda, 
but,  although  of  great  importance  to  India  as  a  whole,  they  have 
affected  to  a  very  slight  extent  the  economic  deydppment  of  the 
region  in  which  they  are  found. 

The  Southern  Deccan  includes  the  eastern  and  southern 
parts  of  Hyderabad,  the  Deccan  districts  of  the  Madras  Presidency, 
and  the  eastern  parts  of  Mysore.  Along  with  these  may  be  men- 
tioned the  outlying  Archaean  districts  of  Rajputana  and  Central 
India,  north  of  the  Black  Soil  Region.  The  spils  derived  from  the 
Archaean  locks  are  often  £oor  in  quality  and  do  not  retain  moisture 
easily.  The  mean  temperatuie  of  the  region  is  over  75°  F.,  and  the 
yearly  range  is  not  great,  while  the  precipitation,  which  varies  from 
about  25  to  nearly  40  inches,  is  irregular,  both  in  the  time  of  its 
occurrence  and  in  its  distribution.  Hence  much  of  the  land  is 
covered  with  scrub  jungle,  and  the  area  which  can  be  cultivated  is 
not  large.  Advantage  has  been  taken  of  the  irregular  nature  of  the 
land  to  construct  tanks,  and  dams  on  rivers,  in  order  to  retain  the 
rainfall,  which  frequently  falls  in  sudden  heavy  showers  as  in  the 
previous  region.  Rice,  and  in  places  sugar-cane,  are  the  principal 
products  of  the  irrigated  areas,  while  various  kinds  of  rgillet^  are 
grown  as  dry  crops.  The  uncertainty  of  the  rainfall  brings  the 
greater  part  of  the  region  within  the  famine  zone,  though  the  worst 
evils  of  a  shortage  in  the  crops  have  been  overcome  to  some  extent 
by  the  construction  of  railways.  Nevertheless,  the  density  of 
population  is  low,  and  does  not  exceed  150  people  to  the  square 
mile.  These  belong,  as  a  rule,  to  the  Dravidian  stock,  and  with 
many  of  them  the  standard  of  livijig  is  exceedingly  low. 

The  East  Coast  Region  has  on  the  whole  a  more  fertile  soil  than 


238  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

the  Deccan,  its  rainfall  is  greater,  being  as  a  rule  from  40  to 
50  inches,  and  the  lower  courses  of  such  rivers  as  the  Mahanadi, 
Godavari,  and  Kistna,  afford  facilities  for  the  irrigation  of  large 
areas.  Hence  rice  is  the  most  important  crop  of  the  region, 
although  millet  and  cotton  also  cover  a  considerable  area.  The 
density...Qt.pQp3;ilation  is  greater  than  in  the  Deccan,  being  over  200 
to  the  square  mile  in  the  north,  and  over  300  in  the  south. 

Of  the  towns,  Madras  is  the  most  important,  but  it  is  handicapped 
as  a  port  by  its  want  of  a  good  natural  harbour,  and  it  has  also 
been  affected,  since  the  opening  up  of  the  south  of  India  by  railways, 
by  such  ports  as  Tuticorin  and  Negapatam,  and  even  by  such 
west  coast  ports  as  Cochin  and  Calicut.  Hides  and  skins  form 
the  most  important  articles  of  export,  followed  by  Indian  piece 
goods  and  raw  cotton.  The  trade  of  the  other  east  coast  ports  is 
similar  in  character. 

Burma. — In  the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula  the  mountain  ranges, 
which  take  their  rise  in  the  eastern  extension  of  the  Tibetan  plateau, 
run,  as  a  general  rule,  from  north  to  south,  and  are  separated  from 
one  another  by  the  valleys  of  great  rivers.  Of  these  rivers  the 
Irrawaddy  is  the  most  important  in  Burma.  After  leaving  the 
confused  mountainous  mass  in  the  north  of  the  country,  it  flows 
south  to  its  delta  through  broad  but  not  continuous  plains,  bordered 
on  the  west  of  its  tributary,  the  Chindwin,  by  the  Naga  and  Manipur 
hiUs,  and  further  south  by  the  Arakan  and  Arakan  Yoma  ranges, 
which  separate  it  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal ;  and  on  the  east  by  the 
Kachin  Hills  and  the  Shan  plateau,  which  form  the  divide  between 
it  and  the  Salwen.  Further  south  the  Pegu  Yoma  mountains 
separate  it  from  the  Sittang,  while  the  Paunglaung  range  lies 
between  the  latter  river  and  the  Salwen.  Beyond  the  Salwen, 
again,  lies  mountainous  country  which  extends  southwards,  at  no 
great  distance  from  the  coast,  to  the  extremity  of  Lower  Burma. 
Plains  of  varying  breadth  lie  between  the  coasts  and  the  ranges 
which  border  them. 

It  is  to  the  coital  plains  and  ranges,  and  to  the  delta  lands  at 
the  mouths  of  the  rivers,  that  the  south-west  monsoon  gives  the 
Jieaviest  rainfall,  which  is  usually  far  in  excess  of  100  inches  per 
year.  In  the  lowlands  of  the  Irrawaddy,  on  the  other  hand,  between 
the  20th  and  23rd  parallels,  the  precipitation  does  not  exceed  40 
inches,  and  is  in  many  places  much  less.    The  mountainous  region 


INDIA  AND   CEYLON  239 

to  the  north,  west,  and  east  of  this  dry  area  has  over  50  inches, 
while  southwards,  as  far  as  the  deltaic  lands,  the  rainfall  gradually 
increases  to  100  inches. 

Four  natural  regions  based  upon  physical  and  climatic  differences 
may  be  recognised:  the  littoral  districts  with  a  heavy  rainfall 
but  with  little  space  for  economic  development ;  the  mountainous 
parts  of  Upper  Burma,  also  with  a  heavy  rainfall  but  generally 
unsuitable  for  settlement;  the  dry  region  of  Upper  Burma,  consisting 
chiefly  of  plains  in  the  valleys  of  the  Irrawaddy  and  the  Chindwin  ; 
and  the  sub-deltaic  and  deltaic  divisions  which  may  be  taken 
together,  although  the  rainfall  increases  greatly  from  north  to  south. 

The  Littoral  Districts  are  engaged  chiefly  in  the  cultivation 
of  rice,  for  which  the  climate  is  specially  suited.  The  population 
is  but  scanty,  and,  owing  to  the  obstacles  to  communication  with 
the  interior,  there  are  few  towns  of  importance. 

Upper  Burma  (wet)  is  the  least  densely  populated  part  of  the 
country,  having  only  fifteen  people  to  the  square  mile.  The 
lower  slopes  of  the  mountains  are  generally  covered  with  forests, 
^while  above  the  limits  of  tree  growth  there  are  rolling  grasslands. 
Much  land  suitable  for  cultivation  in  the  river  valleys  has  yet  to 
Jbe  reclaimed.  Rige  is  the  chief  food  of  the  people  and  the  chief 
agricultural  product,  but  that  which  is  grown  in  the  uplands  is 
poor  in  quality  and  unsuitable  for  export.  Tgajc  is  found  in  most 
of  the  forests,  except  in  the  extreme  north  and  north-east,  and  is 
floated  down  to  the  timber  mills  and  ports  at  the  mouths  of  the 
rivers.  The  mineral  output  of  the  region  is  inconsiderable,  but 
coal  is  found  in  the  Shan  states.  There  are  few  towns,  the  chief 
being  Myitkyina  and  Bhamo,  both  on  the  Irrawaddy. 

Upper  Burma  (dry)  is  very  different  in  character.  Instead  of 
a  dense  tropical  and  sub-tropical  forest,  the  land  is  covered  with 
a  stunted  shrubby  vegetation.  Rice  cannot  be  grown  without  the 
aid  of  irrigation,  and  the  chief  crops  are  millet,  sesame,  and  cottom 
The  level  nature  of  the  land,  and  the  facilftles  which  it  offers  for 
irrigation  by  means  of  canals  and  tanks,  have  led  to  a  denser  popula- 
tion than  in  the  previous  regions,  and  there  are  about  seventy-nine 
people  to  the  square  mile.  The  mineral  wealth  is  considerable, 
petroleiijpa  being  found  in  the  valley  of  the  Irrawaddy  in  the  south, 
and  rubies  in  the  Ruby  Hills  in  the  north.  Of  the  towns  Mandalay 
is  the  most  important. 


240  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

The  Sub-deltaic  and  Deltaic  Tracts  contain  the  greater  part 
of  the  population  of  the  country,  there  being,  over  considerable 
areas,  ninety  people  to  the  square  mile.  The  flooding  caused  by 
the  rivers  enables  rjftg  to  be  grown  as  the  chief  crop,  and  over  90 
per  cent,  of  the  cultivated  land  is  devoted  to  it.  As  the  population 
is  small,  compared  with  that  in  the  rice-growing  regions  of  India, 
there  is  a  considerable  surplus  for  export,  and  rice-mills  have  been 
established  at  Rangoon,  Moulmein,  Bassein,  and  elsewhere.  Teak 
from  Upper  Burma,  and  from  the  hills  surrounding  the  deltaic  and 
sub-deltaic  tracts,  is  also  prepared  for  export  in  these  towns. 

Manufactures  of  India. — ^The  maaiiiaclJir^?  of  India  fall  into 
two  entirely  different  categories.  Some  are  carried  on  by  methods 
which  have  been  practised  by  the  people  from  time  immemorial, 
either  in  their  own  homes  or  in  small  workshops,  while  others  are 
followed  in  factories  planned  on  European  lines.  In  some  cases,  the 
two  systems  are  independent  of  one  another,  but  in  others  they  are 
in  keen  competition. 

The  group  of  industries  connected  with  the  preparation  and 
supply  of_fqod  is  tlie  largest  and  most  widely  distributed.  These 
generally  belong  to  the  first  of  the  two  categories,  but  a  few  are 
of  recent  origin  and  are  found  where  geographical  conditions  are 
favourable  to  their  localisation.  They  include  the  preparation 
of  tea  in  Assam,  flour-milling  in  Northern  India,  and  rice-milling 
in  Burma. 

The  manufacture  of  textiles  ranks  second  with  regard  to  the 
number  of  people  employed,  and  here  the  competition  between 
the  old  and  new  systems  is  keener.  All  over  India  co^ttpn^pds 
are  made,  frequently  but  by  no  means  always,  as  a  subsidiary 
employment  of  the  people  engaged  in  the  industry.  Different 
parts  of  the  country  have  their  characteristic  products,  the  quality 
of  many  of  which  is  exceedingly  good.  But  along  with  this  ancient 
industry  there  now  exists  the  modern  cotton  mill,  whose  situation 
is  mainly  determined  by  the  facihties  for  obtaining  raw  material. 
These  mills  are  engaged  in  the  production  of  yarn  (Egyptian  cotton 
being  imported  for  the  higher  counts,  the  output  of  which  is  steadily 
increasing) ,  and  of  woven  goods,  grey  unbleached  cotton  being  the 
most  important  item  under  this  head.  In  British  India  in  1910-11 
there  were  226  mills,  with  79,000  looms,  and  nearly  6,000,000 
spindles.     These  gave  employment  to  about  214,000  people  on  a 


INDIA  AND  CEYLON  241 

daily  average;  but  at  the  census  of  1901. the  number  of  cotton 
weavers,  exclusive  of  those  employed  in  the  mills,  was  returned 
at  2,670,000. 

The  silk  industry  comes  next  in  importance  to  that  of  cotton. 
The  raw  material  is  obtained  partly  at  home,  different  varieties 
of  the  silkworm  being  raised  throughout  the  country,  and  partly 
from  abroad,  China  being  the  chief  source  of  supply.  The  modern 
steam-power  mills  are  situated  at  Bombay  and  Calcutta,  through 
which  ports  Chinese  silk  enters  the  country.  The  handloom 
factories  are  mainly  in  Bengal,  which  is  the  chief  producer  of  the 
home  supply  of  raw  silk,  while  all  over  India  weavers,  working 
either  alone  or  along  with  their  families,  are  engaged  in  the 
production  of  silk  fabrics. 

The  manufacture  of  woollen  goods  is  general  throughout  the 
country,  and  is  followed,  as  a  rule,  in  small  handloom  factories. 
The  articles  produced  are  usually  of  a  coarse  description,  except 
in  Northern  India,  where  the  weaving  of  carpets  and  shawls  has  been 
carried  to  a  high  pitch  of  perfection,  the  Punjab  being  noted  for 
the  former  and  Kashmir  for  the  latter.  The  great  demand  from 
Europe  for  Indian  carpets  has  led  to  the  production  of  cheap  and 
inferior  articles,  but  within  recent  years  there  have  been  signs  of 
improvement  in  this  respect.  In  1911  there  were  only  five  steam- 
power  woollen  mills  in  the  country,  and  these  gave  employment 
to  3,600  people,  while  over  150,000  are  probably  engaged  in  the 
native  industry  at  the  present  time. 

Although  the  manufacture  of  jute  had  previously  been  carried 
on  to  some  extent  as  a  village  industry,  it  was  not  till  the  Russian 
suppHes  of  hemp  and  flax  were  stopped  during  the  Crimean  war  that 
its  cultivation  and  manufacture  on  a  large  scale  began.  Calcutta, 
with  its  neighbourhood,  is  now  the  centre  of  this  important  industry 
which  gives  employment  to  over  200,000  operatives.  The  jute 
presses,  which  prepare  the  raw  material  for  export,  also  employ  a 
considerable  number  of  workmen. 

Minerals.— With  a  population  of  315,000,000  India  has  on 
an  average  only  150,000  people  engaged  in  mining  pursuits.  The 
influence  of  its  mineral  wealtji  upon  the  economic  development  of 
any  one  of  its  natural  regions  is  therefore  veix.slijgiit,  and  for  this 
reason  it  has  been  deemed  advisable  to  reserve  for'  a  separate  section 
an  account  of  the  mineral  products  of  the  country.  In  1911  the  value 


242  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

of  these  was  estimated  at  £7,000,000,  gold  and  coal  between  them 
accounting  for  over  two-thirds  of  the  total  amount.  The  greater 
part  of  the  gold  produced  (£2,200,000  in  1911)  comes  from  the  Kolar 
field  in  Mysore,  where  it  is  worked  to  a  depth  of  3,000  feet  below 
the  surface.  Alluvial  deposits  are  washed  in  many  parts  of  the 
country,  but  the  output  is  small  and  is  generally  obtained  by  people 
mainly  engaged  in  other  pursuits.  The  production  of  coal  in  the 
same  year  amounted  to  over  12,000,000  tons,  valued  at  £2,500,000. 
Of  this  all  but  5  per  cent,  came  from  the  Gondwana  deposits  in 
peninsular  India,  the  most  important  being  those  in  the  basin  of 
the  Damodar  where  the  fields  of  Raniganj ,  Jherria,  and  Giridih  are 
situated,  the  first  two  being  the  largest  producers  in  India,  while 
the  third  is  noted  for  its  steam  coal.  Coal  is  also  found  in  the 
Gondwana  deposits  in  the  basin  of  the  Son,  where  it  has  recently 
been  worked  at  Daltonganj,  and  in  the  basin  of  the  Godavari, 
where  an  immense  store  has  been  merely  tapped  at  Warora  and 
Singareni.  Outside  of  peninsular  India,  coal  occurs  in  the  Tertiary 
rocks  of  Sind,  Rajputana,  Baluchistan,  Assam,  and  Burma.  The 
greatest  output  at  present  is  from  Assam,  but  the  Burmese  fields 
will  probably  prove  of  considerable  value  to  the  railways  in  that 
country.  The  development  of  the  coal  resources  of  India  has 
been  of  great  economic  advantage  to  the  country.  The  native 
supply  is  now  more  than  sufficient  to  meet  the  home  demand,  a 
somewhat  larger  amount  being  sent  to  ports  on  the  Indian  Ocean 
than  is  imported  from  abroad. 

Salt  ranks  next  in  value  to,  but  a  long  way  behind,  gold  and 
coal.  The  largest  quantity  is  obtained  by  the  evaporation  of  sea 
water  along  the  coasts  of  the  peninsula.  Water  from  the  Sambhar 
Lake,  in  a  region  of  inland  drainage  in  Rajputana,  is  also  the  source 
of  a  considerable  supply.  Rock  salt  is  mined  in  the  Punjab  and  in 
the  North- West  Frontier  Province,  the  chief  deposits  being  near 
Khewra  in  the  Salt  Range.  Petroleum  is  found  in  the  Tertiary 
strata  of  the  Punjab  and  Baluchistan  in  the  west,  and  of  Assam  and 
Burma  in  the  east.  Of  a  total  output  of  225,000,000  gallons  in  1911, 
Burma  contributed  over  222,000,000.  Here  it  is  obtained  at  present 
in  the  dry  zone  of  the  Irrawaddy  valley,  but  it  has  been  located  both 
to  the  north  and  south  of  that  region.  Although  iron  is  worked  only 
to  a  slight  extent  in  India  at  the  present  time,  large  supplies  both  of 
magnetite  and  haematite  are  known. to._exist  in  the  Archaean  rocks 


INDIA  AND   CEYLON  243 

of  Madras  and  the  Central  Provinces.  Among  other  minerals  which 
may  be  noticed  are  saltpetre,  obtained  in  Bihar,  rubies  in  Burma, 
mica  in  Madras  and  Bengal,  and  manganese  in  various  parts  of  the 
country.  India  is  now  the  chief  producer  of  mica  in  the  world,  and 
ranks  second  in  the  production  of  manganese. 

Communications. — Much  of  the  recent  economic  development  of 
India  is  due  to  the  construction  of  railways.  Rivers  had  hitherto 
formed  the  chief  means  of  transport,  but,  while  those  of  the  Indo- 
Gangetic  plain  are  easily  navigable,  the  remainder  are  of  compara- 
tively little  value  to  commerce  on  account  of  the  rapidity  of  their 
courses.  Road-building,  on  the  other  hand,  has  always  been  rendered 
difficult,  in  the  lowlands  by  the  absence  of  suitable  material,  and  in 
the  uplands  by  the  irregular  topography  of  the  country ;  and  of  the 
roads  which  were  made  many  became  impassable  during  the  rainy 
season.  Hence  it  was  not  until  the  advent  of  railways  that  facilities 
existed  for  the  transport  of  heavy  goods  to  or  from  the  coast. 

India  now  has  over  33,000  miles  of  railway.  The  more  important 
systems  include  the  East  Indian,  whose  main  line  runs  from  Howrah, 
opposite  Calcutta,  to  Ambala  in  the  Punjab,  where  it  connects 
with  the  North- Western  system  and  thus  provides  the  great  trunk 
route  from  Calcutta  to  Peshawar  by  way  of  Allahabad,  Delhi,  and 
Lahore.  The  East  Indian  Railway  serves  part  of  the  fertile  Ganges 
plain,  and  at  the  same  time  provides  an  outlet  for  other  systems 
whose  lines  cover,  as  with  a  network,  the  remainder  of  the  region. 
The  North- Western  Railway,  which  exports  the  wheat  of  the  Punjab 
and  North- West  Frontier  Province,  runs  from  Karachi  by  Hyder- 
abad to  Multan,  from  which  town  there  are  lines  to  Peshawar, 
Lahore,  and  elsewhere.  An  important  strategic  branch  of  this 
railway  follows  the  west  bank  of  the  Indus  for  a  considerable 
distance,  and  is  continued  through  Baluchistan  by  Quetta  to  Chaman 
on  the  borders  of  Afghanistan. 

Bombay  is  brought  into  communication  with  the  Ganges  basin 
by  several  important  lines.  The  Bombay,  Baroda,  and  Central 
India  Railway  runs  north  by  Baroda  and  across  Rajputana  to 
Delhi  and  Agra.  The  Great  Indian  Peninsular  Railway  has  two 
routes  from  Bombay  to  the  interior,  the  one  crossing  the  Western 
Ghats  by  the  Thalghat,  and  the  other  by  the  Borghat.  The  first 
of  these  routes  goes  by  the  valleys  of  the  Tapti  and  Narbada  to 
Jubbulpore,  where  it   connects  with  the  East    Indian    line    to 

i6— (1326) 


244  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

Allahabad,  and  constitutes  part  of  the  mail  route  from  Bombay  to 
Calcutta.  A  branch  which  breaks  off  at  Bhusawal  joins  the  Bengal- 
Nagpur  system  at  Nagpur,  and  provides  a  shorter  but  more  difficult 
route  to  Calcutta.  The  southern  line  by  the  Borghat  runs  south- 
east as  far  as  Raichur,  where  it  meets  the  Madras  railway.  These 
two  routes  from  Bombay  enable  the  Great  Indian  system  to  tap  the 
wheat  and  cotton  districts  of  the  Deccan.  The  Southern  Mahratta 
railway,  with  which  it  is  connected  at  Poona  and  elsewhere,  runs 
south  to  Mysore,  west  to  Mormugao  Harbour,  the  port  of  Goa,  and 
east  to  Bezwada,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Kistna.  The  Madras 
Railway  serves  the  southern  part  of  India ;  it  runs  along  the  west 
coast  from  Mangalore  to  Cochin,  and  then  crosses  by  the  Palghat  to 
the  east  coast  which  it  follows  from  Madras  to  Vizagapatam.  Here 
it  joins  the  Bengal-Nagpur  Railway,  the  two  main  lines  of  which 
run  from  Vizagapatam  to  Calcutta,  and  from  Calcutta  to  Nagpur. 
This  railway  shares  with  the  East  Indian  much  of  the  coal  traffic 
of  the  country. 

The  Eastern  Bengal  system  runs  north  from  Calcutta,  having 
as  its  territory  the  land  between  the  Ganges  and  the  Brahmaputra. 
An  eastern  extension  is  designed  to  connect  with  the  Assam-Bengal 
line  which  runs  from  Chittagong  through  the  Surma  valley  and 
across  the  Khasi  hiUs  to  the  valley  of  the  Brahmaputra.  Both 
lines  carry  jute,  rice,  and  tea. 

The  chief  Burmese  railways  start  from  Rangoon.  One  follows 
the  valley  of  the  Irrawaddy  as  far  as  Prome ;  while  the  other,  making 
its  way  north  by  the  Sittang,  strikes  the  Irrawaddy  at  Mandalay, 
from  which  lines  run  north  to  Myitkyina,  and  north-east  to  Lashio. 
Teak  and  rice  are  the  chief  goods  carried. 

The  difference  in  gauge  on  which,  as  a  result  of  geographical  and 
historical  conditions,  the  chief  lines  in  India  have  been  constructed, 
is  a  serious  drawback,  which  it  has  so  far  been  found  impossible 
to  remedy.  The  East  Indian,  Bengal  and  Nagpur,  North-Western, 
Great  Indian  Peninsular,  and  Madras  lines  are  constructed  on  a 
gauge  of  five  feet  six  inches,  while  the  other  lines  which  have  been 
mentioned  are  on  the  metre  gauge.  Present  railway  policy  in 
India  is  directed  to  connecting  as  far  as  possible  the  different 
systems  which  have  the  same  gauge. 

Commerce  between  Europe  and  India  has  existed  from  very 
early  times,  but  its  character  has  undergone  various  important 


INDIA  AND   CEYLON 


245 


changes.  When  trade  was  carried  on  by  routes  partly  overland, 
and  even  for  a  considerable  time  after  the  discovery  of  the  seaway 
by  the  Cape,  the  chief  articles  sent  from  or  to  India  were,  in  pro- 
portion to  their  bulk,  of  high  value  :  and  spices,  gems,  silks,  and 
calicoes  exported  were  paid  for  by  imports  of  the  precious  metals. 
With  the  improvement  of  communication,  both  by  land  and  sea, 
in  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries,  and  with  the  develop- 
ment of  the  resources  of  India  under  British  rule,  trade  became 
more  diversified  as  it  became  possible  to  export  and  import  goods 
of  a  less  valuable  nature.  At  the  present  time  the  exports  are 
such  as  might  be  expected  from  a  country  in  which  the  vast  majority 
of  the  people  are  engaged  in  agriculture,  while  manufactured  goods 
constitute  the  bulk  of  the  imports. 

The  following  table  indicates  the  nature  and  average  value  of  the 
chief  exports  of  merchandise  by  sea  for  the  five  years  1906-10  : — ■ 

In  £  million. 


Average  total  value 

Agricultural  products : 
Grain — 

Wheat 

Rice 
Raw  cotton 
Raw  jute 
Oilseeds 
Hides 
Tea 
Opium 

Manufactured  goods 
Cotton — 

Yarn  and  twist 

Manufactures 


118-3 


61 

12-8 

180 

127 

11-3 

8-7 

7-3 

6-6 


6-3 
1-3 


The  greater  part  of  the  rice  exported  from  British  India  is  grown 
in  Burma,  where  there  is  a  considerable  surplus  production,  which 
is  shipped  to  Europe,  to  various  parts  of  Asia,  and  to  South  America. 
The  wheat  of  the  Punjab  and  the  North- West  Province  is  loaded 
at  Karachi,  and  finds  a  market  mainly  in  the 'United  Kingdom. 
Raw  cotton  is  no  longer  utilised  in  English  mills  to  an  appreciable 
extent,  but  a  new  market  has  in  recent  years  opened  up  in  Japan, 


246  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

which  is  now  the  chief  consumer  of  Indian  cotton  after  the  home 
demand  has  been  satisfied.  Of  the  jute  crop,  about  half  is  consumed 
at  home,  and  the  bulk  of  the  remainder  goes  to  Europe,  where 
Scotland,  Germany,  and  France  are  the  chief  purchasers.  Oil- 
seeds, which  form  one  of  the  staple  crops  of  India,  are  exported 
to  Europe  in  large  quantities,  where  they  are  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  soap,  candles,  and  oil-cake.  Opium  has  hitherto  found  its  chief 
market  in  China,  but  the  recent  attempts  made  by  the  Chinese 
authorities  to  reduce  the  consumption  of  that  drug  have  induced 
the  Indian  Government  to  put  an  end  to  the  trade.  Tea  is  exported 
mainly  to  the  United  Kingdom,  where,  within  the  last  fifty  years, 
Chinese  teas,  which  had  previously  held  the  field,  have  been  almost 
entirely  superseded  by  those  of  India  and  Ceylon,  which  are  also 
beginning  to  make  their  way  in  the  United  States  and  elsewhere. 
The  better  methods  employed  in  India  and  Ceylon,  both  of  growing 
the  plant  and  of  preparing  the  leaf,  account  in  great  part  for  the 
change  which  has  taken  place. 

The  chief  manufactured  exports  of  India  consist  of  cotton  yarn 
and  jute  goods.  The  first  of  these  is  exported  to  China,  where 
within  recent  years  it  has  been  in  great  demand.  Jute  goods 
in  the  form  of  gunny-bags  and  gunny-cloth  are  exported  to  all  parts 
of  the  world. 

The  chief  imports  of  merchandise  by  sea  are  as  follows  : — 

In  £  million. 

Average  total  value,  1906-10 852 

Cotton  goods — 

Yarns  22 

Piece-goods  25  9 

Metals  8-4 

Sugar  7*1 

Machinery  3*8 

Railway  plant  3*8 

Mineral  oils       . .         . .         . .         . .         . .  2*1 

Government  stores       . .         . .         . .         . .  4*4 

At  one  time  India  exported  considerable  quantities  of  cotton 
goods,  but  with  the  growth  of  the  Lancashire  industry  the  demand 
for  these  gradually  declined.  Instead,  India  became  a  large  importer, 
and  has  continued  to  be  such,  though,  with  the  recent  development 
of  the  modern  factory  system  within  the  country,  the  nature  of  the 


INDIA   AND   CEYLON  247 

trade  has  somewhat  changed.  There  is  no  longer  the  same  demand 
for  yarn  as  before,  and  the  imports  of  it  are  confined  to  the  higher 
counts,  for  the  spinning  of  which  Indian  cotton  is  unsuitable. 
With  regard  to  piece-goods,  conditions  are  different,  and  large 
quantities  are  imported,  though  even  here  Indian  competition  is 
making  itself  felt,  and  the  English  manufacturer  is  being  gradually 
restricted  to  the  higher  and  finer  classes  of  goods. 

Metals  and  machinery,  which  together  rank  next  to  cotton  goods 
in  the  table  of  imports,  come  principally  from  Great  Britain,  but 
Germany  and  Belgium  supply  large  quantities  of  cheap  iron  and 
steel,  which  are  much  in  request. 

The  demand  for  sugar  in  India  is  a  growing  one,  and  instead  of 
exporting,  as  was  formerly  the  case,  almost  as  much  as  was  imported, 
India  has  practically  ceased  to  export,  while  large  quantities  are 
imported  from  Java,  Germany,  and  Austria-Hungary. 

The  value  of  the  merchandise  exported  from  India  considerably 
exceeds  the  value  of  that  which  is  imported,  and  this  is  in  part 
accounted  for  by  the  import  of  treasure,  by  the  charges  which  the 
Government  of  India  has  to  meet  in  the  United  Kingdom,  by 
interest  on  loans,  and  in  other  ways. 

Ceylon 

Ceylon  has  an  area  of  25,000  square  miles.  Plains  extend  across 
the  north  of  the  island  and  along  the  coast,  but  the  centre  and  south 
are  occupied  by  a  great  mountainous  plateau  which  rises  in  Adam's 
Peak  in  the  south-west  to  a  height  of  over  7,000  feet.  The  climate 
of  the  lowlands  is  tropical,  and  Colombo  has  a  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture of  about  80°  F.,  but  on  the  uplands  sub-tropical  and  even  warm 
temperate  conditions  prevail.  Ceylon  Hes  in  the  path  of  both 
monsoons,  but  the  heaviest  rainfall  takes  place  on  the  south- 
west slopes  of  the  plateau,  parts  of  which  have  a  mean  annual 
precipitation  between  150  and  200  inches. 

The  principal  food  grain  cultivated  by  the  natives  isjace,  but  the 
agricultural  wealth  of  the  island  is  mainly  derived  from  plantations 
under  European  control.  Coffee  was  at  one  time  the  chief  export 
of  the  country,  but  the  plants  were  attacked  by  disease  and  the 
industry  practically  disappeared.  Its  place  has  been  taken  by  tea, 
which  is  grown  on  the  mountain  slopes  of  the  south-west,  where, 
above  an  elevation  of  2,500  feet,  it  forms  practically  the  only  crop. 


248  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

As  in  India,  the  leaf  is  prepared  by  modem  methods  and  the  total 
production  now  amounts  to  about  184,o66,006  Ibsrannually.^  The 
cultivation  of  rubber  has  spread  rapidly  within  recent  years ;  in 
1890  there  were  only  300  acres  of  it  in  the  country,  but  it  is  estimated 
that  there  are  now  over  200,000  acres.  The  plantations,  which 
consist  mainly  of  Hevea  hrasiliensis,  lie  on  the  lower  slopes  of  the 
hills  in  the  south-west,  where  the  rainfall  is  great  and  the  tempera- 
ture high.  The  output,  which  in  1911  was  about  2,500  tons,  will 
probably  increase  rapidly  for  some  years  to  come,  as  the  more 
recently  planted  trees  reach  an  age  at  which  they  can  be  tapped. 
The  coconut  palm  is  grown  mainly  on  the  hot  and  humid  plains 
in  the  west  and  south,  and  the  various  articles  derived  from  it — 
copra,  oil,  fibre,  etc. — ^when  taken  together,  come  next  in  value  to 
tea  among  the  exports  of  the  island.  The  only  mineral  worked 
to  any  extent  is  graphite  or  plumbago.  In  quality  it  is  superior 
to  that  found  elsewhere,  and  Ceylon's  output  amounts  in  value 
to  four-fifths  that  of  the  world's  production. 

Colombo  is  the  chief  port,  and  an  important  place  of  call  for 
steamers. 

1  India  has  an  annual  output  of  about  260,000,000  lbs. 


CHAPTER    XXIV 

indo-china 

The  Malay  Peninsula 

The  northern  part  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  falls  within  the  King- 
dom of  Siam,  but  the  southern  part  is  controlled  by  Great  Britain, 
either  directly  or  indirectly.  The  Straits  Settlements,  which  include 
Penang,  Malacca,  and  Singapore,  as  well  as  certain  other  islands  and 
coastal  districts,  are  administered  as  a  Crown  Colony,  while  the 
Federated  Malay  States  (Perak,  Selangor,  Negri  Sembilan,  and 
Pahang),  the  districts  of  Keda,  Trengganu,  and  Kelantan  in  the 
north  (recently  transferred  by  Siam),  and  the  State  of  Johor  in  the 
south,  are  all  under  British  protection.  The  total  area  is  about 
54,000  square  miles,  and  the  population,  partly  Malay  and  partly 
Chinese,  numbers  nearly  2,700,000. 

1^  Owing  to  its  position  just  north  of  the  equator,  the  country  has  a 
tropical  climate,  and  the  mean  annual  temperature  is  about  80°  F. 
Rain  falls  throughout  the  year  and  the  total  precipitation  is 
generally  over  100  inches.  Timber,  coconuts,  gutta-percha,  and 
gums  are  all  obtained  in  the  extensr^5~fore5tSr-while  on  the  planta- 
uOns-rice,  manioc,  and  spices  are  grown.  Within  recent  years  the 
cultivation  of  rubber  has  made  rapid  progress,  and  the  area  devoted 
to  it  now  amounts  tonearly  300,000  acres. 

Jin,^ which  is  still  the  most  important  product  of^the  country,  is 
obtained  from  alluvial  deposits  found  mainly  in  the  Federated 
Malay  States.  The  bulk  of  the  ore  is  sent  to  the  Straits  Settlements 
to  be  smelted,  and  the  tin  is  exported  from  Penang  and  Singapore. 
During  the  three  years  1909-11,  over  one-half  of  the  tin  mined 
throughout  the  world  was  produced  in  the  region  under  consideration. 
,  Sjngapore,  which  is  situated  on  the  south  coast  of  the  island 
of  that  name,  at  the  extreme  end  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  is  the  chief 
port  of  the  region,  and  one  of  the  greatest  trading  centres  in  the 
world,  as  its  position  makes  it  the  meeting-place  of  steamship 
lines  from  all  parts.  *      ~ —  ^ 

Siam 
The  Kingdom  of  Siam  has  an  area  of  about  195,000  square  miles, 
and  a  population  which  is  estimated  at  over  8,000,000  souls.     The 

249 


/ 


250  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

greater  part  of  the  country  lies  within  the  basin  of  the  Menam,  and 
is  separated  from  Burma  by  a  granitic  range  which  is  continued 
southwards  through  the  entire  length  of  the  Malay  Peninsula. 
The  northern  part  of  the  Menam  basin  is  mountainous,  and  is 
traversed  by  numerous  rivers,  including  the  Meping  and  the  Nampo. 
South  of  the  confluence  of  these  at  Paknampo,  the  mountains 
disappear,  and  a  great  alluvial  plain  extends  to  the  Gulf  of  Siam. 
To  the  east  lies  the  plateau  of  Korat,  which  has  an  average  elevation 
of  about  600  feet.  It  is  bordered  on  the  north  and  east  by  the 
Mekong  into  which  it  drains,  and  on  the  south  by  a  low  range  of 
hills  which  separates  it  from  Cambodia.  The  last  of  the  physical 
regions  of  Siam  belongs  to  the  Malay  Peninsula  and  extends  south- 
wards, first  on  the  east  and  then  on  both  sides  of  the  main  granitic 
range,  to  the  neighbourhood  of  the  sixth  parallel  of  north 
latitude. 

Climatic  Conditions. — ^With  the  exception  of  the  last-mentioned 
region  the  climateof  Siam  is  jjifisgftQnaL  in  character,  and 
there  are  three  seasons,  a  cool,  a  hot,  and  a  rainy.  The  mean 
temperature  is  high  throughout  the  year,  and  in  the  lowlands 
does  not  fall  below  70°F.  even  during  the  cool  season.  The  rainfall 
is  least  jloD^hLesQUtlicoast  and  in  the  valley  of  the  Lower  Menam, 
where  it  does  not  exceed  60  inches.  On  the  more  elevated  lands 
to  thejiQUtli.iUld-£astit  ranges  from  60  to  80  inches,  while  in  the 
J  Malay   Peninsula^  where   grecipitation   occurs   practicgJly   at    all 

seasons,  it  exceeds  the  latteramoUllL. "^ 

.       Upper  Siam. — ^The  mountain  ranges  of  this  region  are  covered 

'     with  forests,  while  in  the  intervening  valleys  there  are  considerable 

areas  of  fertile  soil.     XeaJi,  which  is  the  principal  product  of  the 

forests,  is  floated  down  to  the  coast  either  at  Bangkok  by  way  of  the 

Menam,  or  at  Moulmein  by  way  of  the  Salwen.     Within  recent 

years  some  attempts  have  been  made  to  protect  these  forests  from 

the  reckless  destruction  to  which  they  have  for  long  been  subject. 

Other  v^uable  timber  ire.fi.s  are  known  to  exist  in  Upper  Siam, 

but  they  are  too  heavy  to  be  floated  down  the  rivers,  and  their 

P     exploitation  must  await  the  development  of  the  railway  system. 

In  the  valleys  rig^  is  the  principal  crop,  but,  as  it  is  unsuitable 

.    for  export,  the  bulk  of  it   is  consumed  at   home.      Tobacco   is 

/     also  grown,  mainly  for  domestic  use,  and  among  othefcrops  are 

f  XPtton^  tea,  and  betel-nut.    The  chief  commercial  town  of  the 


INDO-CHINA  251 

region  is  Chieng-mai,  which  is  situated  on  the  Meping  and  is  engaged 
in  trade  with  the  Shan  states. 

Lower  Si  am. — The  alluvial  soil,  monsoonal  rainfalL  and  high  \/- 
temperature  of  the  lowlands  of  Siam  are  pecuHarly  favourable 
to  the  cultivation  nf^r^  which  is  the  chief  product  j^f^he  region.  ^ 
and  not  only  provideTnTe  staple  food  for  man  and  beast  within  it, 
but  forms  the  basis  of  the  greater  part  of  its  foreign  trade.  Market 
gaideiiing  gives  employment  to  large  numbers  of  Chinese,  especially 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  towns.  Various  attempts  have  been  made 
to  grow  cotton,  but  so  far  without  much  success.  Other  crops 
include  maize,  sugar-cane,  sesamum,  and  coconuts.  *^ 

The  lowlands  contain  the  greater  part  of  the  population  nf  Siam 
and  its  chief  towns.    Bangkok,  the  capital,  which  is  situated  on  the     \y 
Menam  about  twenty-nve  mnes  from  ils  tnouth,  is  the  great  port 
of  the  country,  though  it  has  a  very  indifferent  harbour,   [j*  ^^  I 
engaged  in   the   preparation    of   rice   and    teak   for   export,    in  \ 
shipbuilding,  and  in  engjuaeeringj 

The  Plateau  of  Korat  has  considerable  areas  of  infertile 
soil  and  swampy  land,  and  is  not  well  adapted  to  economic  develop- 
ment. Rice  is  the  principal  crop  grown,  but  the  amount  produced 
is  Httle  more  than  sufficient  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  somewhat 
scanty  population.     Korat  is  the  only  town  of  any  importance. 

The  Malay  States  are  as  yet  but  slightly  developed.  The 
forests  in  the  more  mountainous  parts  of  the  country  are  beheved 
to  contain  valuable  supplies  of  timber.  In  the  Monthon  of  Puket, 
to  the  west  of  the  axial  range,  mining  has  hitherto  been  the  principal 
occupation  of  the  inhabitants,  among  whom  there  are  large  numbers 
of  Chinese.  (Gold,  silver,  petroleum,  and  coal  have  all  been  located,  ]  U 
but  tiojalone  iras  been  worked  to  any  considerable  extent)  Agjici^i^ 
ture  has  not  made  much  progress  and  food  supplies  have  to  be 
imported.  On  the  east  coast,  on  the  other  hand,  in  the  Monthons 
of  Chumpawn,  Nakon  Sritzimarat,  and  Patani,  agriculture  is  the 
chief  pursuit  of  the  people,  although  a  certain  quantity  of  tin  and 
wolfram  is  mined.  The  whole  region  is  one  in  which  a  considerable 
amount  of  economic  development  is  possible,  but  it  is  greatly 
handicapped  at  present  by  the  want  both  of  labour  and  of  means  of 
transport. 

Communications  in  Siam  are  inainly  by  water.  In  the  southern 
part  of  the  Menam  basin  the  place  of  roads  is  taken  by  numberless        » 


252  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

canals  which  penetrate  in  every  direction,  while  the  river  itself 
is  the  great  highway  between  north  and  south.  A  railway  runs 
northward  from  Bangkok  to  a  point  near  Phre  and  will  eventually 
be  continued  to  Chieng-mai.  Near  Ayuthia  on  this  line  a  branch 
breaks  off  for  Korat,  which  is  the  starting-point  of  land  routes 
to  the  Mekong.  Another  hne,  which  runs  from  Bangkok  to  Hua 
Hin,  in  the  Malay  States,  will  eventually  be  carried  southwards 
through  the  entire  length  of  the  peninsula,  where  parts  of  it  are 
already  under  construction. 

Commerce. — Ejce  is  the  principal  export  of  Siam  and  accounts 
for  about  85  per  cent,  of  the  total  value  of  all  exports.  It  is  mainly 
sent  in  the  first  instance  to  Singapore  and  Hong-Kong,  whence  it 
is  distributed  to  various  parts  of  the  world.  XS9-k  and  ttct  are 
also  exported.  Among  the  imports,  cotton  goods  occupy  the  first 
place,  but  silk,  provisions  of  various  kinds,  iron  and  steel  goods, 
and  machinery  are  all  of  importance. 

French  Indo-china 

French  Indo-China  falls  into  several  distinct  physical  regions. 
To  the  east  of  the  Mekong  and  to  the  south  of  the  Chinese  province 
of  Yunnan,  there  is  the  wild  mountainous  region  of  Luang  Prabang, 
from  which  runs  southwards  the  crescent-shaped  central  range  of 
Annam.  In  the  south  the  lowlands  of  the  Mekong  lie  to  the  west 
of  this  range,  while  in  the  north,  in  the  angle  between  it  and  the 
Chinese  massif,  is  the  basin  of  the  Red  River  of  Tongking.  Each 
of  the  political  units  into  which  the  country  is  divided  corresponds 
more  or  less  closely  to  a  well-defined  physical  region.  Tongking 
is  the  basin  of  the  Song-Koi  or  Red  River.  Annam  includes  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Annamese  mountains,  and  the  narrow  plains 
between  them  and  the  sea.  The  western  slopes  of  the  same  moun- 
tains together  with  Luang  Prabang  constitute  the  territory  of 
Laos.  Cambodia  and  Cochin-China  make  up  the  lowlands  of 
the  Mekong,  the  latter  belonging  almost  entirely  to  the  delta  of 
that  river,  while  the  former  consists  of  the  region  between  the  delta 
in  the  south  and  the  uplands  in  the  north. 

All  these  regions  receive  their  rainfall  during  the  summer  monsoon, 
with  the  exception  of  Annam,  which  alone  is  excluded  from  its 
influence  by  the  mountain  ranges  that  traverse  it  from  north  to 


INDO-CHINA  253 

south,  and  make  it  dependent  upon  the  ,  north-east  trades  of 
winter.  The  average  rainfall  of  the  whole  region  varies  from  40 
to  80  inches,  except  in  the  Laos  country  and  on  the  slopes  of  the 
Annamese  hills,  where  it  exceeds  the  latter  amount. 

Cambodia  has  an  area  of  45,000  square  miles,  and  a  population 
which  is  estimated  at  1,600,000.  The  low-lying  districts  alongside 
of  the  rivers  and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  lakes  are  uncultivated,  and 
on  the  hills  in  the  north  and  east  a  forest  vegetation  alone  is  possible. 
But  the  intermediate  lands,  which  are  inundated  each  year  by  the 
Mekong  and  its  tributaries,  are  very  fertile  and  produce  large  crops 
of  jice,  which  not  only  satisfy  the  home  demand  but  afford  a  con- 
siderable surplus  for  export.  Cotton^is  grown  in  increasing 
quantities :  it  is  said  to  be  better  than  Indian,  and  commands 
a  higher  price,  but  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  a  sufficient  supply 
of  labour  is  an  obstacle  to  the  rapid  extension  of  the  area  cultivated. 
Among  other  products  of  Cambodia  are  gamboge,  which  takes  its 
name  from  the  country,  cardamoms,  which  are  extensively  used 
in  Chinese  medicines,  pepper,  cinnamon,  tobacco,  and  sugar. 
Eglue^is  an  important  pursuit  both  in  the  rivers  and  in  the  great 
lake  Tonle-Sap,  and  large  quantities  of  fish  are  exported. 
Pnom-penh  is  the  chief  town  of  the  country. 

Cochin-China,  which  has  an  area  less  than  one-half  that  of 
Cambodia,  has  a  population  with  a  density  four  times  as  great, 
and  is  at  present  q>np.  of  the,  npost  valuable  of  the  ^rench  possessions 
in  Indo-China.  gjce  is  extensively  cultivated  and  large  quantities 
are  exported,  while  other  crops  include  tobacco,  maize,  sugar,  and 
pepger.  Various  attempts  have  been  made  to  introduce  manu- 
factures into  the  country,  but  apparently  without  much  success, 
and  rijc&.iftiliing  at  Saigon  and  Cholon  is,  apart  from  agriculture, 
the  only  industry -of  importance.  Saigon,  which  is  situated  on  an 
affluent  of  the  Donnai,  can  be  reached  by  large  ocean-going  ships, 
and  is  the  port  not  only  of  Cochin-China  but  of  Cambodia 
as  well. 

The  Laos  Territory  is  as  yet  in  a  very  undeveloped  condition. 

With  an  area  of  98,000  square  miles  it  has  a  population  which  does 

I  •  not  exceed  two-thirds  of  a  million.    The  only  exports  of  importance 

I    are  forest  products.     Some  rjobfeer  is  obtained  from  a  variety  of 

creeping  plants  found  in  the  woods.      Tealf  is  plentiful,  but  its 

exploitation  is  rendered  difficult  by  the  aBsence  of  good  means  of 


y 


254  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

communication.  Cinrjaiaon,- lac,  cardamoms,  and  gum  benjamin 
(used  in  the  manufacture  of  scent)  are  all  found.  In  the  alluvial 
deposits  of  the  Mekong  valley  some  gold  is  obtained. 

Annam,  which  has  an  area  of  52,000  square  miles  and  a  popula- 
tion of  5,500,000,  consists  of  a  strip  of  land  about  800  miles  in  length 
and  nowhere  more  than  100  miles  in  breadth.  The  cultivable  land 
is  hmited  in  extent,  and  occurs  mainly  in  the  valleys  of  the 
numerous  small  rivers  which  descend  from  the  neighbouring  moun- 
tains. Rice  is  the  principal  crop,  but  on  account  of  the  absence 
of  summer  rains  it  has  to  be  planted  in  the  early  part  of  the  year, 
and  therefore  does  not  receive  both  moisture  and  heat  at  the  same 
time.  The  yield  per  acre  is  accordingly  small,  and  there  is  little 
available  for  export.  Attention  has  recently  been  paid  to  the  culti- 
vation of  tea,  the  output  of  which  is  increasing,  and  cotton  is  also 
grown  though  not  so  successfully  as  in  Cambodia.  Other  products 
include  rubber,  cinnamon,  silk,  lac,  sesamum,  and  ground-nuts,  but 
none  of  these  is  of  great  importance.  Joshing  is  extensively  carried 
on  along  the  coasts,  especially  in  the  south.  Minerals,  including 
coal  and  goldj  have  been  located,  but  so  far  the  output  has  been 
negligible,  and  the  manufactures  which  exist  do  no  more  than  meet 
the  most  pressing  demands  of  the  inhabitants.  The  principal 
towns  are  Hu6,  the  capital  of  the  country,  and  Turan,  its 
chief  port. 

ToNGKiNG  has  an  area  of  46,000  square  miles.  In  the  east  are 
the  delta  lands  of  the  Song-Koi,  and  on  them  the  majority  of 
the  6,000,000  inhabitants  of  the  country  are  settled.  In  the 
north  the  land  is  hilly,  and  in  the  west  it  is  mountainous.  Ricg^ 
which  is  the  most  important  product,  is  grown  both  in  the  lowlands 
and  in  the  vaUeys  of  the  uplands,  and  two  crops  a  year  are  generally 
harvested,  though,  owing  to  the  large  population,  the  amount  avail- 
able for  export  is  small.  Maize  has  only  been  recently  introduced 
into  the  country  but,  as  is  also  the  case  in  Co  chin-China,  its  cultiva- 
tion is  rapidly  extending.  C&ttou  is  grown  and  considerable  atten- 
tion is  paid  to  sericulture.  Other  products  include  Qofige,  some 
varieties  of  HiUaljgr,  and  cunao,  a  plant  from  which  a  much  used 
native  dye  is  obtained.  CoaX  is  at  present  the  most  important 
mineral  obtained  inTongking,  and  is  worked  mainly  in  the  peninsula 
of  Hongay,  north  of  Haiphong,  where  there  are  open  mines.  The 
coal,  which  is  anthracitic,  is  used  for  various  purposes,  and  large 


INDO-CHINA  255 

quantities  of  briquettes  are  also  manufactured.  Tin,  zinc,  and  a 
few  other  minerals,  are  worked  on  a,^smaILs,Qale.  TongHng  is  the 
chief  industrial  region  in  Indo-Chiiia.  Several  mills  for  spinning 
cotton  yarn  have  been  estabhshed,  and  there  are  also  distilleries, 
soap  works,  and  factories  for  the  production  of  paper,  tobacco, 
matches,  cement,  and  other  articles.  The  most  important  towns 
are  Hanoi,  the  capital,  which  is  situated  upon  the  right  bank  of  the 
Song-Koi,  sixty  miles  from  the  coast,  and  Haiphong,  the  leading 
port  of  the  country,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cua-cam,  a  canalised 
off-shoot  of  the  same  river. 

Communications. — Communications  in  Indo-China  frequently 
present  considerable  difficulties.  In  Cambodia  and  in  Cochin- 
China  the  obvious  means  of  penetration  into  the  interior  is  by  way 
of  the  Mekong,  but  that  river,  although  it  is  navigable  by  specially 
constructed  steamers  for  several  hundred  miles,  is  obstructed  by 
rapids  at  several  parts  of  its  course,  and  has  never  become  the 
great  route  into  the  interior  which  the  French  hoped  to  make  it. 
The  principal  railway  in  the  south  runs  from  Mytho  on  a  distributary 
of  the  Mekong,  by  way  of  Saigon,  to  Phantiet  on  the  Annamese 
coast,  and  it  is  proposed  to  connect  Phantiet  with  Turan,  whence 
a  line  108  miles  in  length  runs  to  Quangtri.  Quangtri  may  some 
day  be  linked  up  with  Vinh,  which  already  has  railway  com- 
munication with  Hanoi,  200  miles  distant.  In  Tongking  a  line 
runs  from  Haiphong  to  Hanoi,  whence  one  branch  goes  by  Laokai 
to  Yunnan-fu  and  the  other  by  Langson  to  the  frontier  of  Kwangsi. 
The  branch  from  Hanoi  to  Yunnanfu  has  been  constructed  to 
develop  French  trade  with  China,  and  a  reduced  tariff  exists  for 
goods  which  are  of  French  or  Indo-Chinese  origin.  In  the  internal 
trade  of  Tongking  the  Song-Koi  and  its  tributaries  play  an  important 
part. 

Commerce. — Rjce-is  the  most  important  of  the  exports  of  Indo- 
China  and  accounts  for  nearly  two-thirds  of  the  total  value  of  the 
goods  of  domestic  origin  sent  out  of  the  country.  Fish,  maize,  and 
cotton  yarn  are  also  exported  in  considerable  quantities.  Among 
the  imports  cotton  goods  come  first,  while  a  great  variety  of  articles, 
including  silk,  liquor,  paper,  oil,  iron  and  steel  goods,  and  opium 
are  all  bought  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  The  export  trade  is 
conducted  very  largely  with  Singapore  and  Hong-Kong,  while  the 
bulk  of  the  imports  is  of  French  or  Eastern  origin. 


CHAPTER   XXV 

THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE 

The  Chinese  Empire,  consisting  of  China  Proper  and  the  dependent 
states  of  Manchuria,  Mongolia,  Tibet,  and  Eastern  Turkestan, 
covers  an  area  estimated  at  over  4,000,000  square  miles,  or  nearly^ 
one-fourth  of  the  whole  continent  of  Asia.  Physically  it  belongs 
to  several  of  the  great  morphological  regions  of  Asia,  and  the  mid- 
world  mountain  system,  the  Mongolian  plateau,  the  Manchurian 
lowland,  and  the  ancient  massif  of  Southern  China  all  fall  in  whole  or 
in  part  within  its  frontiers.  But,  as  China  Proper  differs  in  so  many 
respects,  both  physically  and  climatically,  from  its  outlying 
dependencies,  while  these  in  turn  differ  from  one  another,  it  is 
better  to  treat  the  political  units  separately,  though  along  their 
borderlands  they  tend  to  merge  into  those  which  adjoin  them. 

China  Proper 

The  physical  features  of  China  are  extremely  complicated  and 
can  only  be  sketched  here  in  broad  outUne.  The  country  is  on  the 
whole  mountainous,  but  there  are  several  plains  of  considerable 
importance.  North  China  belongs  in  part  to  the  mid-world  moun- 
tain system,  its  western  half  being  enclosed  within,  and  traversed 
by,  ranges  from  the  Inshan  and  Tsin-hng  mountains,  which  are 
folded  continuations  of  the  Kwen-lun.  Further  east,  beyond  the 
old  plateau  of  Ordos,  the  hills  of  the  Shansi  upland  run  from  north 
to  south,  and  those  of  Chili  from  north-east  to  south-west.  The 
eastern  part  of  Northern  China  is  occupied  by  the  Great  Plain, 
which  extends  from  the  hills  of  Chili  to  the  delta  lands  of  the  Yangtse, 
and  covers  a  considerable  part  of  ChiU,  Honan,  Shantung,  Anhwei, 
and  Kiangsu.  To  the  south  of  the  Tsin-ling  and  its  continuation, 
the  Funiu-shan,  lies  the  Chinese  plateau,  the  mountain  ranges  of 
which  were  formed  by  fracture  of  the  ancient  land  mass,  and  have 
a  general  trend  from  south-west  to  north-east.  In  the  west  of 
Szechwan  and  Yunnan,  the  mountains  run  from  north  to  south. 

Climate. — The  climate  of  China  differs  considerably  from  that 
of  the  remainder  of  the  monsoon  region  of  Asia.  The  greater  part 
of  the  country  lies  outside  of  the  tropics,  and  although  the  summers 

256 


THE   CHINESE   EMPIRE  257 

are  everywhere  hot  the  winters  are  cold  in  the  north  and  mild  in 
the  south.  This  wider  range  of  temperature  is  in  the  main  due 
to  the  fact  that  China,  unlike  India  which  is  protected  by  the  lofty 
wall  of  the  Himalayas,  is  exposed  to  the  cold  winds  which  blow 
outward  from  the  Asiatic  land  mass  during  the  winter  season. 
Canton,  for  example,  has  a  winter  temperature  about  14°F.  below 
that  of  Calcutta  which  Hes  less  than  one  degree  further  south, 
while  Shanghai,  practically  in  the  same  latitude  as  Multan,  has  a 
winter  temperature  which  is  lower  by  about  18°F. 

In  January  the  greater  part  of  China  hes  between  the  isotherms 
of  10°F.  and  60°F.,  the  temperature  decreasing  on  the  whole  from 
south  to  north.  In  the  basin  of  the  Hwang-ho  many  of  the  lakes 
and  rivers  are  frozen  during  the  coldest  part  of  the  year,  and,  although 
in  Central  China  the  climate  is  less  severe,  the  surface  of  the  smaller 
lakes  in  the  lowlands  of  the  Yangtse  are  sometimes  covered  with  a 
sheet  of  ice  sufficiently  thick  to  perniit  skating.  Even  in  the  basin 
of  the  Si-kiang  the  thermometer  frequently  descends  at  night  to 
freezing  point,  and  ice  is  sometimes  found.  In  summer,  on  the  other 
hand,  when  the  Asiatic  land  mass  becomes  heated,  China  has  a 
high  temperature,  and  in  July  the  greater  part  of  it  lies  between 
the  isotherms  of  80°F.  and  90°F.  In  the  basin  of  the  Hwang-ho 
the  temperature  is  naturally  not  quite  so  high,  nor  is  the  period 
during  which  it  lasts  so  prolonged,  as  is  the  case  in  Central  and 
Southern  China. 

The  rainfall  is  monsoonal  and  occurs  mainly  during  the  summer 
months  when  oceanic  winds  from  the  south  and  south-east  blow 
towards  the  heated  continental  interior.  Owing  to  the  general  con- 
figuration of  the  country,  there  is  nowhere  a  precipitation  so  heavy 
as  that  which  occurs  in  parts  of  India  and  Indo-China,  but,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  total  amount  of  rainfall  is  more  evenly  distributed. 
In  winter,  the  wiijds^  blowing  outwards  from  the  cold  continental 
interior  bring  but  httle  moisture  to  the  greater  part  of  the  country 
as  they  come  from  the  north  and  north-west,  but,  when  they  veer 
round  to  the  north-east  and  strengthen  the  ordinary  trade  wind 
system,  they  help  to  bring  a  certain  amount  of  moisture  to  the 
coastal  districts  of  Central  China.  The  mean  annual  precipitation 
decreases  from  south  to  north.  In  the  basin  of  the  Si-kiang  and  in 
the  southern  part  of  that  of  the  Yangtse,  it  varies  from  60  to  80 
inches.     Except  in  the  north-west,  the  remainder  of  the  Yangtse 


2^8  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

basin  has  over  40  inches  and  the  Hwang-ho  basin  over  20  inches. 
In  a  country  the  topography  of  which  is  so  diverse  as  that  of  China 
the  local  deviations  from  these  general  conditions  of  temperature 
and  rainfall  are  very  great. 

Vegetation. — ^The  climatic  conditions  of  China  are  reflected 
in  its  vegetation,  which  varies  from  v^arm  temperate  in  the  north 
to  tropical  in  the  south.  The  cold  winters  which  prevail  in  the 
basin  of.  theHwang-Jio  are  fatal  to  tropical  and  sub-tropical  plants 
at  this  season  of  the  year ;  on  the  other  hand,  the  hoF^ummers 
permit  the  cultivation  of  i^ojtpn,  and  rice  can  even  be  grown  in 
some  of  the  southern  districts.  Among  the  trees  are  the  pine, 
birch,  beech,  oak,  poplar,  and  willow.  The  fruits^  and.Joo4_grain§ 
are  those  of  the  temperatg„zQge>  the  former  including  apples,  pears, 
peaches,  apricots,  and  cherries,  and  the  latter  wheat,  maize^  millet, 
peas,  and  beans.  In  the  Yangtse  basin,  with  its  longer  summers, 
mllHer  winters,  and  heavier  rainfall,  a  sub-tropical  vegetation  appears. 
The  bamboo,  the  camphor  tree,  the  mulberry,  the  banyan,  and  a 
variety  of  the  date  palm  are  all  found  in  different  parts  of  the  region 
together  with  trees  which  produce  wax,  tallow,  and  varnish.  Rice, 
which  is  the  chief  food  of  the  inhabitants,  is  extensively  grown, 
sugar-cane  and  tea  flourish  in  places,  and  various  fibres  are  cultivated. 
The  long  hot  summers,  the  warm  winters,  and  the  heavy  precipita- 
tion in  the  basin  of  the  Si-kiang  permit  the  growth  of  a  tropical 
vegetation  in  the  lowland  districts.  Among  the  trees  are  the 
mahogany,  the  ebony,  and  the  date  palm ;  the  fruits  include 
the  banana,  the  pine-apple,  and  the  pomegranate ;  and  caoutchouc, 
aniseed,  and  several  other  industrial  products  are  also  obtained. 
In  addition,  the  great  variations  in  elevation  throughout  the  basin 
of  the  Si-kiang  render  possible  the  growth  of  most  of  the  plants  of 
the  preceding  regions. 

General  Considerations. — ^The  present  state  of  economic 
development  in  China  is  due  in  part  to  considerations  of  a  geo- 
graphical nature.  As  the  country  falls  within  the  monsoon  area 
it  supports  a  lar^e  population,  the  size  of  which  has  been  variously 
estimated,  but  which  probably  numbers  between  300  and  400 
millions.  The  marked  chmatic  differences  between  the  summer  ar  i 
winter  seasons,  which  have  already  been  noted,  have  probably 
contributed  to  the  greater  physical  energy  of  the  Chinese  as  compared 
with  the  inhabitants  of  the  more  tropical  parts  of  the  monsoon  area. 


THE   CHINESE  EMPIRE  259 

In  agriculture,  which  is  their  chief  occupation,  they  have  become 
very  proficient ;    nevertheless   the  large  population  has   pressed 
heavily  upon  the  means  of  subsistence,  and  has,  indeed,  only  been 
kept  in  check  by  war,  famine,  flood,  and  infanticide.     But,  if  China 
is  both  fertile  and  densely  populated,  it  is  surrounded  on  all  sides 
but  one  by  barren  or  mountainous  lands  which  have  retarded, 
though  they  have  not  prevented,  communication  with  the  rest  of 
the  world,  and  even  the  ocean  was  until  recently  a  barrier  to  inter- 
course with  other  countries.    This  is^l^j^oa^liatlirajly  led  to  a 
deadening  of  intellectual  Ijfe,  in  consequence  of  which  education, 
became   stereotyped.     At   the  same  time,  their   obvious   mental 
superiority  to  the  nomadic  races  by  whom  they  were  surrounded 
and  occasionally  conquered,  and  to  the  aborigines,  whom  they  had 
themselves  overcome,  natiurally  gave  the  settled  Chinese  an  exag- 
gerated belief  in  their  own  capacities,  and  induced  a  contempt 
for  foreigners  and  for  foreign  methods.    To  remedy  these  evils  the 
rulers  of  China  have,  on  the  whole,  been  able  to  do  but  little.    The 
mountainous  topography  of  the  country,  no  less  than  its  great 
extent,  rendered  necessary  a  certain  amount  of  local  autonomy, 
and  the  energy  of  the  Government  has  usually  been  absorbed, 
either  in  maintaining  a  balance  between  different  parts  of  the 
Empire  or  in  readjusting  the  balance  after  it  had  been  disturbed. 
Since  the  Manchu  conquests,  moreover,  power  has  been  in  the 
hands  of  aliens,  who  have  cared  but  little  for  the  ultimate  welfare 
of  the  people.     It  would  appear,  therefore,  that  the  great  mass 
of  the  inhabitants,  poor,  uneducated,  and  ill-informed  of  what  is 
happening  elsewhere,  presents  a  formidable  obstacle  to  the  spread  of 
new  ideas,  and  hence  it  is  not  surprising  that  economic  progress 
has  only  been  naadojn^those  districts  where  foreign  influences 
have  been  most  felt.    But,  as  recent  events  in  Japan  have  shown, 
the  Chinese  belong  to  a  race  not  incapable  of  rapid  industrial 
advances,  and,  with  the  vast  supplies  of  coal,  iron,  and  other  raw 
materials  which  they  possess,  it  is  not  impossible  that  they  may 
initiate  an  industrial  revolution,  the  results  of  which  will  be  of 
much  more  importance  than  those  of  the  political  one  which  has 
just  taken  place  in  their  midst. 

Natural  Regions. — Differences  in  cKmate  and  vegetation  justify 
the  separate  treatment  of  each  of  the  three  great  river  basins  which 
together  constitute  the  greater  part  of  China,  but  the  knowledge 

17— (1326) 


260  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

at  present  possessed  regarding  the  geological  and  geographical 
structure,  cUmate,  and  economic  potentialities  of  the  country  does 
not  permit  a  final  division  into  natural  regions  to  be  made.  As 
will  be  seen  later,  each  of  the  river  basins  may  be  subdivided,  but 
the  available  information  regarding  these  subdivisions  only  allows 
of  their  treatment  in  a  general  way.  Even  for  the  larger  divisions 
reliable  statistics  are  usually  wanting,  and  the  relations  of  these 
regions  to  one  another  can  therefore  only  be  imperfectly  discussed. 
The  Basin  of  the  Hwang-ho. — ^This  region  may  be  considered 
as  including  the  six  provinces  grouped  along  the  course  of  the 
Hwang-ho,  viz.,  Kansu,  Shensi  (north  of  the  Tsin-ling),  Shansi, 
Honan,  Chih,  and  Shantung,  though  it  may  be  noted  that  the  greater 
part  of  Chili  is  drained  by  the  Pei-ho  and  tributaries  of  the  Liao, 
much  of  Shantung  by  short  rivers  running  directly  to  the  sea,  and 
the  south-eastern  parts  of  Honan  by  the  affluents  of  the  Hwai. 

Kansu,  Shensi,  Shansi,  and  the  west  of  Honan  are  mountainous, 
while  the  east  of  Honan,  the  greater  part  of  Chili,  and  the  west  of 
Shantung  belong  to  the  Great  Plain.  In  the  east  of  Shantung  is 
an  isolated  mountain  mass  formed  largely  of  Archaean  rock. 
Throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  mountainous  area  in  Kansu, 
Shensi,  Shansi,  and  Honan,  the  river  basins  are  covered  over 
with,  and  the  rugged  outUnes  of  the  mountains  smoothed 
down  by,  large  deposits  of  loess.  The  loess  is,  according  to  Richt- 
hofen,  "  an  earth  of  brown-yellow  colour,  so  soft  that  one  can  easily 
rub  it  to  pieces  with  the  fingers,  and  yet  at  the  same  time  so  firm 
that  in  places  where  through  erosion,  as  by  running  water,  large 
masses  are  broken  off,  it  remains  standing  in  perfectly  vertical  walls 

several  hundred  feet  high It  is  so  fine  that  one  can  rub 

most  of  it  into  the  pores  of  the  skin ;  nothing  then  remains  but 
some  fine  grains  of  sand,  of  which  there  are  sometimes  more,  some- 
times less.  .  .  By  repeated  washing  with  water  one  can  separate 
this  from  a  much  greater  mass  of  material  that  may  be  called  clay, 
and  is  tinted  brownish-yellow  by  iron.  A  third  important  element 
is  carbonate  of  lime  ....  On  every  bit  of  loess,  even  the  smallest, 
one  may  recognise  a  certain  texture,  which  consists  in  that  the  earth 
is  traversed  by  long-drawn-out  tubes  which  are  in  part  extraordin- 
arily fine,  and  in  part  somewhat  coarser  ;  which  branch  downward 
after  the  manner  of  fine  rootlets  and  generally  are  coated  with  a 
thin  crust  of  carbonate  of  lime."     To  discuss  here  the  various 


I 


■nmm 

"^"tHE  CHINESE   EMPIRE  j  261 

theories  held  as  to  the  origin  of  this  loess  would  involve  too  long 
a  digression.  Richthofen  himself  believed  that  it  was  due  to  the 
outflowing  winds  of  Central  Asia  depositing  the  dust  obtained 
from  prolonged  denudation  of  the  rocks  in  regions  unprotected  by 
vegetation  and  exposed  to  great  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  while 
the  vertical  cleavage  of  the  loess  he  attributed  to  the  pores  left  by 
the  decay  of  grass  roots  as  each  successive  layer  of  vegetation  was 
covered  up  by  fresh  deposits  of  sand.  A  more  recent  theory 
involves  the  action  of  water  as  well  as  of  wind  in  the  transportation 
of  the  loess,  and  explains  the  vertical  cleavage  by  the  action  of 
physical  principles.  Whatever  be  the  true  solution,  the  fact 
remains  that  the  loess  gives  to  Northern  China  some  of  its  most 
characteristic  features.  Its  great  fertiUty  is  probably  due  in  part 
to  the  organic  remains  of  a  former  vegetation,  and  in  part  to  capillary 
action  drawing  up  from  below  ground  water  containing  lime  derived 
from  the  underlying  Hmestone  rocks.  On  the  other  hand,  owing 
to  its  porous  nature,  it  requires  much  water  in  order  to  render  it 
productive,  and  irrigation  is  difficult  as  the  rivers  have  cut  their 
beds  downward  on  to  the  rocks  below. 

The  plain  of  the  Hwang-ho,  which  in  appearance  is  a  wide  alluvial 
flat,  is  also  covered  with  loess  to  a  great  extent.  This  loess  has 
been  brought  down  as  the  alluvium  of  the  Hwang-ho  and  other 
rivers,  and  has  been  resorted  by  the  action  of  wind  and  water. 
Near  the  rivers  sandy  soils  and  fine  sands  are  found,  while  in  the 
open  spaces  intervening  between  them  loess  is  the  prevailing 
formation.  The  poorer  soils  have,  however,  often  been  improved 
by  flooding  them  with  water  from  the  Hwang-ho,  in  order  that  the 
loess  which  it  contained  might  be  deposited. 

The  loess  region  is  generally  well  cultivated,  though  in  some  places, 
as  in  Shansi,  it  suffers  severely  from  the  want  of  sufficient  moisture. 
The  lowlands  are,  as  a  rule,  more  productive  than  the  uplands, 
and  the  valley  of  the  Wei  in  Shensi,  the  plain  of  Taiyuen  in  Shansi, 
the  region  drained  by  the  Lo  in  Honan,  and  various  parts  of  the 
Great  Plain  are  noted  for  their  fertiUty.  The  staple  food  crops 
(wheat,  millet,  peas,  and  beans)  are  widely  grown,  and  some  rice 
is  produced  in  the  valley  of  the  Wei.  Opium  was  until  recently 
a  flourishing  crop  in  Norther aXhina,  which  produced  much  of  the 
best  native  varieties.  Cotton  is  cultivated,  but  not  to  the  same 
extent  as  in  the  Yangtse  basin  where  climatic  conditions  are  more 


262  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

favourable.  Wild  silk  is  obtained  from  silkworms,  which  thrive 
upon  the  leaves  of  the  oak  in  several  provinces,  but  chiefly  in 
Shantung. 

The  mineral  we^th  of  this  region,  as  indeed  of  the  greater  part 
of  China,  is  very  considerable,  but  it  has  as  yet  been  exploited 
only  to  a  slight  extent.  Q^,  iron,  and  petroleum  are  known  to 
exist  in  both  Kansu  and  Shansi,  and  in  Kansu  gold  is  also  found. 
Shansi  is  one  of  the  great  mineral  storehouses  of  the  Empire.  In 
the  south-east  enormous  deposits  of  coal  occur,  while  in  the  west, 
between  the  Hwang-ho  and  Fen-ho,  lies  what  Richthofen  described 
as  a  plateau  of  nearly  horizontal  coal-bearing  strata,  although  recent 
research  has  shown  that  dips  in  the  strata  frequently  occur,  and  that 
the  coalfields  are  probably  more  restricted  than  Richthofen 
supposed.  The  mineral  wealth  of  Shansi  may  yet  make  it  one  of 
the  great  industrial  provinces  of  the  Empire,  but  at  present  the  only 
district  in  the  province  where  coal  appears  to  be  worked  is  at 
Ping  'ting  'chou,  and  the  output  is  small.  In  Honan  the  Pekin 
Syndicate  works  mines  at  Chinghuachen,  where  over  500,000 
tons  of  anthracite  and  good  steam  and  household  coal  were  recently 
produced  in  the  course  of  a  year.  The  most  important  coal  mines 
in  China  are  those  owned  by  the  Kailan  Mining  Administration 
at  Kaiping  and  Lanchow,  about  eighty  miles  from  Tientsin.  The 
output,  consisting  of  bituminous  coal  suitable  for  steam  purposes, 
amounted  in  1911-12  to  nearly  1,500,000  tons.  There  are  also 
mines  at  Chinghsing,  on  the  borders  of  Shansi  and  Chili,  but  these 
have  a  much  smaller  output.  In  Shantung  the  coalfields  lie  along 
the  margins  of  the  western  half  of  the  mountain  region  where  the 
rocks  are  of  later  formation  than  further  east.  A  German  company, 
the  Schantung  Bergbau  Gesellschaft,  has  mines  at  Fangtze  in 
the  Weihsien  district,  and  at  Hungshan  in  Poshan,  and  these  together 
produced  430,000  tons  in  1910-11.  The  Chinese-owned  mines  at 
Poshan  are  also  both  valuable  and  productive.  In  addition  to 
coal.  Shantung  has  deposits  of  iron,  copper,  gold,  and  other 
minerals,  and  iron  is  also  found  in  Shensi,  Shansi,  and  elsewhere. 

The  manufactures  of  the  Hwang-ho  basin  are,with  a  few  important 
exceptions,  confined  to  the  supply  of  local  necessities  and  are  pro- 
duced by  primitive  methods.  Owing  to  the  cold  winters  which 
prevail,  woollen  goods  are  in  much  demand,  and  are  maiiufactm;ed 
at  Lanchow  in  Kansu,  in  Shansi,  and  elsewhere  with  wool  grown 


THE   CHINESE   EMPIRE  263 

in  these  provinces  or  imported  from  Mongolia.  Native  looms 
for  the  weaving  of  cotton  are  found  everywhere,  and  modem  cotton 
factories  have  recently  been  established  at  Tientsin,  at  Tsingtau 
in  Shantung,  and  at  Changteh-fu  in  Honan.  At  Tientsin  there 
are  also  dye  works  and  distilleries.  Shantung  and  Honan  are  both 
extensively  engaged  in  the  silk  tra^ie,  and  at  Chefoo  there  are 
several  steam  filiatures  and  many  hand  filiatures  for  the  treatment 
of  Manchurian  cocoons.  Both  provinces,  but  especially  Shantung, 
are  also  noted  for  their  manufacture  of  pongees  from  the  tussah 
silk  which  they  produce.  The  manufacture  of  straw  plait  is  an 
important  industry  in  the  west  of  Shantung  and  in  the  south  of 
Chili,  where  a  wheat  with  a  long  straw  is  grown.  Japanese  straw 
is  also  imported  for  the  same  purpose. 

Communications  and  Towns. — ^Tientsin,  situated  on  the  Pei-ho, 
a  Httle  below  the  place  where  the  river  is  joined  by  its  principal 
tributaries,  is  the  great  collecting  and  distributing  centre  of  the 
Hwang-ho  basin  and  the  most  important  seaport  of  North  China. 
Owing  to  the  rocky  bed  in  the  upper  part  of  its  course,  the  frequent 
shallows  in  the  lower  part,  and  the  rapid  flow  throughout,  the 
Hwang-ho  itself  is  on  the  whole  of  little  value  as  a  waterway  and  is 
only  navigable  in  places  by  junks.  Accordingly,  no  great  commercial 
city  has  grown  up  near  its  mouth,  and  Tientsin,  situated  on  the 
navigable  Pei-ho  and  serving  as  the  port  of  Pekin,  has  become  the 
entrepot  of  the  whole  region.  Unfortunately  its  harbour  is  bad ; 
only  by  constant  dredging  can  it  be  made  accessible  to  ships  drawing 
more  than  13  feet  or  so  of  water,  and  for  some  time  each  year  it  is 
closed  by  ice.  From  Tientsin  great  trading  routes  pass  by  way  of 
Pekin  to  different  parts  of  Asia.  One  goes  north-east  by  Shanhai- 
kwan,  and  between  the  hills  of  north  Chili  and  the  sea,  to  Mukden  in 
Manchuria ;  another  runs  north-west  by  the  Nankou  pass  to 
Kalgan,  almost  on  the  edge  of  the  Mongolian  plateau,  and  formerly 
the  great  centre  of  the  Russian  tea  trade.  From  Kalgan  several 
routes  diverge ;  one  leads  across  MongoHa  by  Urga  to  Kiakhta ; 
another  makes  its  way  round  the  plateau  of  Ordos  by  way  of 
Kweihwacheng  (situated  in  the  north  of  Shensi  and  a  great  collecting 
centre  for  skins  and  camel-hair  ropes  from  all  parts  of  MongoHa)  to 
Lanchow  in  Kansu ;  a  third  goes  to  Taiyuen,  the  capital  of 
Shansi,  where  it  meets  a  more  direct  route  from  Pekin  by 
Chengting-fu,  and  then  proceeds  by  Sian-fu,  the  capital  of  Shensi, 


264  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

situated  on  the  Wei,  to  Lanchow.  Lanchow  is  the  point  of  con- 
vergence of  routes  from  Lhasa  and  Kashgar ;  while  from  Sian-fu 
there  are  ways  to  Chengtu  in  Szechwan  and  Hankow  on  the  Yangtse, 
the  first  across  the  western  and  the  second  across  the  eastern 
end  of  the  Tsin-Hng  mountains.  From  Pekin,  the  most  important 
route  to  the  south  is  that  which  crosses  the  Hwaiyang-shan,  a 
continuation  of  the  Funiu-shan,  on  the  way  to  Hankow ;  it  is 
followed  by  the  railway  which  connects  these  two  towns.  Two 
other  railways  run  from  Pekin ;  one  goes  by  Tientsin  and  Shan- 
haikwan  to  Mukden,  with  a  branch  to  Newchwang,  but  it  is  question- 
able whether  it  will  be  able  to  prevent  Tientsin  losing  much  of  the 
trade  of  Manchuria  as  a  result  of  the  development  of  that  province 
by  the  Japanese.  The  line  to  Kalgan,  on  the  other  hand,  will 
probably  increase  the  trade  with  Mongolia,  more  especially  when 
it  is  linked  up  with  the  trans-Siberian  railway.  A  little  to  the 
south  of  Chengting,  on  the  Pekin-Hankow  line,  a  narrow-gauge 
railway  breaks  off  from  the  main  line  and  runs  to  Taiyuen  across  a 
very  difficult  piece  of  country ;  it  taps  the  coal  and  iron  fields 
of  Shansi,  and  will  probably  eventually  become  an  important 
feeder  of  Tientsin.  Another  line  bringing  coal  towards  Pekin  is 
that  which  runs  from  the  Pekin  Syndicate  mines  at  Chinghuachen 
by  Sinhsiang  to  Taokow,  whenee  the  coal  is  carried  to  the  capital 
by  the  Wei  and  the  Grand  Canal.  The  Grand  Canal,  one  of  the 
great  waterways  of  ancient  China,  runs  from  Hangchow,  in  the 
province  of  Chekiang,  to  Tientsin,  a  distance  of  1,000  miles  across 
the  Great  Plain ;  its  northern  section  is  of  comparatively  little 
value,  as  it  is  badly  constructed. 

In  addition  to  Tientsin  two  other  ports  are  worthy  of  mention — 
Chefoo  and  Tsing&u.  The  former  is  a  Chinese  port  on  the  north 
of  the  Shantung  peninsula,  while  the  latter  lies  on  Kiaochow  Bay 
on  the  south  of  the  peninsula,  in  the  territory  leased  to  Germany  in 
1898.  Tsingtau  has  made  rapid  progress  under  German  control 
within  the  last  few  years  ;  it  possesses  an  excellent  harbour  and  is 
connected  with  Tsinan-fu  on  the  Hwang-ho.  Hence  it  has  been 
able  to  attract  much  of  the  trade  that  formerly  went  to  Chefoo, 
which  is  without  a  good  harbour  to  protect  its  shipping  from  the 
strong  northerly  gales  of  winter,  and  is  unconnected  by  rail  with  its 
hinterland.  Practically  the  whole  of  the  important  straw  braid 
trade  has  been  diverted  from  Chefoo  to  Tsingtau,  and  it  is  possible 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE  265 

that  the  latter  port  may  also  eventually  attract  to  itself  some  of  the 
trade  of  Honan,  Shansi,  and  Shensi.     The.  position  of  Tsingtau  has 
been  considerably  strengthened  by  the  completion  of  the  Tientsin- 
Pukow  railway  which  now  runs  from  Tientsin  by  Tsinan-fu  to    ^ 
Pukow  on  the  Yangtse  opposite  Nanking. 

The  Basin  of  the  YAiJGTSE-KiANG  is  the  largest  and  most 
important  region  in  China.  Physically  it  may  be  regarded  as  a 
series  of  steps  downwards  from  the  Tibetan  plateau,  each  step  being 
tilted  upwards  towards  the  east  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  the  forma-  V 
tion  of  a  lake  basin  between  its  eastern  edge  and  the  step  further  to 
the  west.  The  different  provinces  which  make  up  the  region  corre- 
spond to  some  extent  with  these  different  steps.  Szechwan  is 
mountainous  in  the  west  and  in  the  extreme  east,  while  in  the 
centre,  at  a  much  lower  elevation,  lies  the  famous  Red  Basin  formed 
of  Jurassic  sandstone.  The  next  step  downwards  is  represented 
by  the  provinces  of  Hupeh  and  Hunan,  the  former  consisting  largely 
of  the  basin  of  the  Han,  and  the  latter  of  the  basins  of  the  Siang- 
kiang,  the  Yuan-kiang,  and  the  Tse-kiang  which  drain  into  the 
Tungting  lake,  the  remains  of  the  vast  sheet  of  water  which  once 
covered  the  whole  alluvial  plain  of  the  Middle  Yangtse.  Still 
further  east  another  step  consists  of  the  provinces  of  Anhwei  and 
Kiangsi,  whose  alluvial  parts  formed  the  bottom  of  a  great  lake 
of  which  the  Poyang  lake  is  now  the  largest  remnant.  Lastly,  there 
is  Kiangsu,  a  plain  of  comparatively  recent  formation,  built  up  in 
the  south  by  the  Yangtse,  and  in  the  north  by  the  Hwang-ho  at  a 
time  when  that  river  flowed  to  the  south  of  the  Shantung 
peninsula. 

The  Yangtse  Basin  contains  great  areas  of  fertile  land.  The 
mountainous  parts  of  Szechwan  are  probably  incapable  of  much 
development,  but  the  Red  Basin  is  one  of  the  most  productive 
regions  in  the  world.  It  has  an  elevation  varying  from  600  to 
2,000  feet,  and  every  inch  of  the  soil,  which  is  derived  from  the  sand- 
stone rocks,  can  be  cultivated.  One  part  of  it,  the  Chengtu  plateau, 
indeed,  would  probably  be  of  little  use  were  it  not  for  the  marvel- 
lous irrigation  system  which  enables  it  to  support  a  population 
that  has  been  estimated  at  over  2,000  to  the  square  mile.  In 
Hupeh  much  of  the  Han  valley  is  very  productive,  and  the  same  is 
true  of  the  valleys  of  the  various  rivers  which  flow  from  Hunan  into 
the  Tungting  lake,  while  the  alluvial  land  around  the  lake  itself 


266  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

and  on  both  sides  of  the  Yangtse  supports  a  large  population. 
The  mountainous  parts  of  Hupeh  are  generally  barren,  but  in  Hunan 
they  are  cultivated  in  some  parts  and  forested  in  others.  In 
Kiangsi  there  is  a  large  area  of  fertile  land  around  the  Poyang  lake. 
Anhwei  and  Kiangsu  are  productive  throughout,  but  their  northern 
parts  belong  climatically  to  the  basin  of  the  Hwang-ho  rather 
than  to  that  of  the  Yangtse.  Throughout  the  whole  Yangtse 
basin  it  is  generally  possible  to  take  two  crops  per  year  off  the  soil, 
while  in  the  basin  of  the  Hwang-ho  not  more  than  one  crop  can  be 
obtained. 

The  agricultural  products  of  the  region  have  already  been  men- 
tioned.    O^upi  was  formerly  one  of  the  staple  crops,  but  the  recent 
enactmaats  against  its  use  have  led  to  a  very  great  decrease  in  its 
cultivation,  and  in  Szechwan,  where  it  was  perhaps  most  extensively 
grown,  various  attempts  are  being  made  to  find  a  substitute  for  it. 
Cgtioa^has  been  introduced,  and  wheat,  which  had  been  displaced 
by  opium,  is  beginning  to  regain  lost  ground,  while  an  extension  of 
the  area  under  the  mulberry  is  also  probable.     Szechwan,  and  still 
more  Kiangsi,  are  the  chief  silk-producing  provinces  in  the  Yangtse 
basin,  white  silk  being  obtained  in  the  latter  and  yellow  sil^  in 
the  former.    As  elsewhere  in  China,  however,  sericulture  is  in  a 
backward  condition,  and  it  has  been  repeatedly  said  that  Chinese 
silk  might  be  greatly  improved  within  a  few  years  by  even  slightly 
better  methods  of  rearing  the  silkworm.      Recently,  schools  of 
sericulture  have  been  estabUshed  in  Szechwan,  and  it  is  hoped  that, 
as  in  Japan,  the  results  will  be  beneficial.    Tea  is  grown  mainly  in 
the  provinces  of  Anhwei,  Kiangsi,  Hupeh,  and  Hunan,  but  some  is 
also  produced  in  Szechwan.    Though  both  black  and  green  tea  may 
be  obtained  from  the  same  plant,  the  differences  between  them  being 
due  to  the  method  of  preparation,  some  lands  produce  a  leaf  more 
suitable  for  the  manufacture  of  one  kind  of  tea,  and  some  for  the 
manufacture  of  the  other  kind.     In  the  Yangtse  basin,  Anhwei  is 
the  centre  of  production  of  green  teas,  while  from  the  other  provinces 
mentioned  black  tea  is  mainly  procured.     Hankow  is  the  chief 
market  for  the  latter  and  Canton  for  the  former.     Cotton  is  ex- 
tensively cultivated  in  the  vaUey  of  the  Han,  in  the  lowlands  of 
Hunan  and  Kiangsi,  and  in  the  southern  parts  of  Kiangsu  and 
Anhwei,  and  it  is  from  these  districts  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
Chinese  output  of  raw  cotton  is  obtained.     It  generally  has  a  short 


THE   CHINESE  EMPIRE  267 

'  staple,  but  the  best  varieties  are  whiter  and  softer  than  Indian, 

especially  in  the  Yangtse  basin  where  they  are  superior  to  those 
grown  further  north.  The  export  has  increased  greatly  within 
recent  years  owing  to  the  demand  for  it  in  Japan,  but  it  is  impossible 
to  say  how  much  is  actually  grown,  as  a  very  large  quantity  is  con- 
sumed within  the  country  itself.  The  average  yield  per  acre  in 
China  has  been  estimated  at  175  lbs.,  and  it  is  said  that  in  the 
Yangtse  basin  between  300  and  400  lbs.  per  acre  are  obtained. 
Attempts  are  being  made  here,  as  in  other  parts  of  China,  to  improve 
the  quality  by  the  free  distribution  of  good  seed  and  in  other  ways. 
Among  other  products  may  be  mentioned  the  tallow  tree  (Stillingia 
sebifera)  which  is  found  in  Hupeh,  and  vegetable  wax,  which 
is  deposited  on  the  wax-tree  (Fraxinus  Chinensis)  in  Szechwan 
by  an  insect  known  as  Coccus  pela.  Grass-cloth  is  made  from  a 
fibre  hitherto  believed  to  be  hemp  but  now  recognised  as 
ramie  {Boehmeria  nivea).  In  Hupeh  and  Kiangsi  its  growth  and 
manufacture  are  of  considerable  importance. 

The  basin  of  the  Yangtse,  although  not  so  rich  in  minerals  as 
that  of  the  Hwang-ho,  nevertheless  contains  large  stores  of  some  of 
the  more  important.  Coal  is  found  underlying  the  sandstone  in 
the  Red  Basin  of  Szechwan  where  it  is  at  present  almost  entirely 
worked  by  native  methods,  and,  though  much  of  it  is  said  to  be 
inferior,  some  at  least  is  good.  In  Hunan,  also,  the  red  sandstone, 
which  prevails  everywhere  in  the  mountainous  districts,  appears 
to  cover  thick  deposits  of  anthracite  and  bituminous  coal.  These 
extend  into  Kiangsi  where  they  are  worked  at  Pinghsiang  under  the 
control  of  the  company  which  owns  the  Hanyang  iron  works.  The 
annual  output  in  1910  and  in  1911  exceeded  600,000  tons,  some  of 
which  made  its  way  down  the  river  as  far  as  Shanghai.  Coal  is 
also  found  in  Anhwei  and  Kiangsu,  but  is  as  yet  little  worked.  Iron 
appears  to  be  well  distributed,  but  the  most  productive  districts 
at  present  are  in  Kiangsi,  where  at  Tiehshanpu  is  found  what  has 
been  described  as  one  of  the  richest  iron  mines  in  the  world.  From 
it  is  obtained  the  ore  used  in  the  iron  works  at  Hanyang.  The 
Kanchow  district  of  Kiangsi  contains  valuable  copfier  mines  which 
have  as  yet  been  exploited  only  to- a  slight  extent.  Gold,  silver, 
and  precious -stones  are  found  in  various  places,  and  antimony 
occurs  in  Hirnan. 

The  manufactures  of  the  region  are  varied.     Cotton    and   silk 


268  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 


j^^^^  goods  are  produced  by  both  Chinese  and  European  methods. 

large  quantity  of  cotton  yarn  is  imported  from  India,  and  an  increas- 
ing amount  from  Japan,  to  serve  as  a  warp  upon  which  the  people 
in  their  own  homes  weave  a  weft  spun  from  native  cotton.     Hupeh 
manufactures  in  native  workshops  large  quantities  of  piece  goo 
for  export  to  other  parts  of  China,  and  modern  factories  have  bee 
established  at  Shanghai,  Hankow,  and  elsewhere.     Silk  fabrics  ar< 
produced  to  a  great  extent  by  the  peasantry  in  the  districts  in  whid 
the  silkworm  is  reared,  and  Szechwan,  and  more  especially  Kiangs 
are  noted  for  their  piece  goods.     In  addition,  there  are  stea 
fihatures  at  Shanghai,   Hankow,   Chenkiang,    and    other    towns* 
At  Hanyang,  which  is  part  of  the'^reat  triple  town  of  Hankow- 
Hanyang- Wuchang,  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Han  and  th 
Yangtse,  a  Chinese  company  has  established  large  iron  and  ste 
works  on  a  European  basis.     This  company,  which,  as  alread 
mentioned,  owns  both  coaf  and  iron  mines,  manufactures  larg 
quantities  of  steel  rails  for  use  in  China  itself  and  has  begun  to  expo: 
pig-iron  to  Japan  and  the  United  States.     The  Yangtse  Engineerin. 
Works,  controlled  by  the  same  company,  are  situated  a  few  mil 
lower  down  the  river,  and  are  said  to  be  making  good  progre 
The  various  concerns  of  this  company  are  among  the  few  in  Chin; 
worked  by  Chinese  upon  European  lines,  which  appear  to  be  succesi 
ful,  others  which  have  been  established  at  Hankow  and  elsewhe 
being  only  partially  so.     The  manufacture    of    pottery    is    sti: 
extensively  carried  on  at  Kingtehchen,  in  Kiangsi,  with  kaol 
derived  from  the  decomposed  granitic  rocks  found  in  the  neighbour 
hood,  but  the  product  seems  to  have  lost  the  high  quality  whid 
it  once  possessed,  and  now  consists  chiefly  of  rice  bowls,  which  an 
exported  to  all  parts  of  the  Empire.     Other  industries  includ 
the  manufacture  of  paper  and  Indian  ink,  the  extraction  of  o; 
from  beans  and  cotton  seed,  the  preparation  of  tobacco,  and  a  greai 
number  of  pursuits  of  minor  importance. 

The  Yangtse  is  the  great  means  of  communication  througho 
its  basin,  but  its  value  as  such  varies  greatly  at  different  seaso 
and  at  different  places.  During  the  summer  months  the  river  ris 
rapidly  as  a  result  of  the  heavy  monsoon  rains.  At  Hankow  t 
rise  averages  between  40  and  50  feet,  but  in  the  gorges  abov 
Ichang  it  may  be  anything  between  60  and  100  feet.  As  a  rul^ 
steam   navigation  is  easy    as  far  as    Hankow,    in    summer    io\ 


THE   CHINESE   EMPIRE  269 

ocean-going  steamers,  and  in  winter  for  river  steamers  of  1,000  to 
2,000  tons  register.  Between  Hankow  and  Ichang  steam  freighters 
ply  throughout  the  year,  though  they  are  handicapped  in  winter 
by  low  water.  Above  Ichang,  the  bulk  of  the  traffic  between  it 
and  Chungking,  the  great  port  of  Szechwan,  has  hitherto  been 
carried  on  in  junks  hauled  along  by  gangs  of  Chinese;  but,  within  the 
last  year  or  two,  specially  constructed  tugs  with  cargo  floats  in  tow 
have  been  able  to  sail  between  the  two  towns  for  eight  months 
in  the  year,  and  would  probably  be  able  to  continue  doing  so  during 
the  whole  year  were  certain  improvements  made  in  the  bed  of 
the  river.  On  the  other  hand,  junk  traffic  is  easier  during  the 
winter  months  when  the  water  is  low  than  at  any  other  season 
of  the  year.  Of  the  tributaries  of  the  Yangtse,  the  Han  can  be 
navigated  by  small  steamers  for  a  distance  of  300  miles  above 
Hankow,  and  part  of  the  Kan-kiang  can  be  similarly  utilised  during 
the  summer  months,  but  elsewhere  junks  alone  are  possible. 

A  number  of  important  trading  centres  have  grown  up  upon  the 
banks  of  the  Yangtse.  Chungking  is  the  port  of  Szechwan  and 
more  especially  of  the  Chengtu  plateau,  while  Ichang  is  the  port 
of  transhipment  for  goods  going  to  and  coming  from  that  province. 
Hankow,  in  addition  to  being  an  important  manufacturing  town, 
seems  destined  to  become  one  of  the  great  commercial  centres  ol 
China.  It  is  already  connected  with  Pekin  by  rail,  and  will  some 
day  be  connected  with  Canton  by  a  Hne  which  at  present  is  making 
slow  progress,  but  will,  when  completed,  follow  the  Cheling  Pass 
route  which  goes  southward  along  the  valley  of  the  Siang  and  its 
tributary  the  Lin,  crosses  the  Cheling  Pass,  and  descends  the  valley 
of  the  Pei-kiang  or  North  River  for  the  greater  part  of  the  remainder 
of  the  way  to  Canton.  A  line  from  Hankow  to  Chengtu  has  been 
projected,  and  the  section  from  Ichang  to  Wanhsien  is  under  con- 
struction ;  while  another  Hne  will  ultimately  run  from  Hankow  by 
way  of  Shasi  to  Nanking,  which  is  already  connected  with  Shanghai. 
Linkiang,  which  is  situated  on  the  Yangtse,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Poyang  Lake,  is  the  great  collecting  and  distributing  centre 
for  the  rich  province  of  Kiangsi.  From  it,  an  important  way  of 
communication  from  the  Yangtse  to  the  Si-kiang,  known  as  the 
Ambassadors'  Route,  leads  up  the  valley  of  the  Kan-kiang,  across 
the  Meiling  Pass,  and  down  the  valley  of  the  Pei-kiang  to  Canton. 
Wuhu  is  a  port  for  north-east  Anhwei  with  different  parts  of  which 


270  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

it  is  connected  by  a  number  of  minor  waterways.     Nanking  will 
probably  assume  greater  importance  by  the  completion  of  the 
railway  from  Pukow  to  Tientsin,  which  is  likely  to  tap  a  considerable 
amount  of  trade  that  at  present  makes  its  way  eastwards  to  the 
Grand  Canal  by  the  Hwai  and  its  tributaries,  and  so  enable  Nanking 
to  become  the  port  of  a  great  part  of  western  Honan  and  northern 
Anhwei.     Chenkiang  is  situated  where  the  Grand  Canal  crosses  the^ 
Yangtse,  but  its  trade  is  not  so  great  as  might  have  been  expectec 
as  the  canal,  though  it  is  still  used  to  a  considerable  extent,  h? 
not  been  altered  to  suit  modern  conditions,  and  has  even  beei 
allowed  to  fall  into  decay  in  places.     Shanghai,  situated  on  th< 
Whangpoo  about  twelve  miles  from  its  confluence  with  the  Yangtse 
and  between  fifty  and  sixty  miles  from  the  sea,  is  the  great  com-j 
mercial  entrepot,  not  only  for  the  Yangtse  basin  but  for  the  whol^ 
of  North  China. 
^  Chekiang  and  Fokien. — ^The  two  provinces  of  Chekiang  ai 
Fokien  oelong  neither  to  the  basin  of  the  Yangtse  nor  to  that  of  th^ 
Si-kiang.     Lying  along  the  south-east  coast  of  China,  they  are  t< 
a  great  extent  cut  off  from  the  interior  by  the  various  ranges  of  thi 
Chinese  massif  which  run  parallel  to  one  another  and  to  the  coast| 
The  northern  part  of  Chekiang  belongs,  indeed,  to  the  delta  lane 
of  the  Yangtse,  but  in  the  south,  and  in  Fokien,  there  are  few  plaint 
and  the  land  is  generally  mountainous.    The  rivers  are  naturalb 
short,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  Min,  are  not  of  great  value 
means  of  communication.     The  summers  are  hot  and  the  wintei 
mild,  the  lowlands  at  least  being  protected,  except  in  the  north  o^ 
Chekiang,  from  the  cold  winds  of  winter  which  blow  from  the 
continental  interior.     The  agricultural  products  are  of  considerable 
importance.     Green  tea  comes  from  Chekiang  and  black  froi 
Fokien,  but  both  provinces  have  suffered  by  the  great   decline 
in  the  foreign  demand  for  Chinese  teas.     Chekiang  also  produce 
large  quantities  of  silk,  and  its  piece-goods  rank  with  those  ol 
Kiangsi  as  the  best  in  China.     Cotton  is  grown  throughout  the  whole 
region  and  sugar-cane  in  the  south.     The  camphor  tree  (Cinna'\ 
momum  Camphora)  is  found  in  both  provinces,  and  the  distillation  oi 
camphor  has  been  an  important  industry  for  some  years.     Un-j 
fortunately,  the  reckless  destruction  of  the  older  trees  is  unaccom-j 
panied  by  the  planting  of  others  to  take  their  place  and  the  end] 
of  the  industry  is  said  to  be  in  sight. 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE  271 

I  Minerals  are  believed  to  be  fairly  abundant,  but  so  far  little 
has  been  done  to  develop  them.  The  chief  trading  centres  include 
Hangchow,  Ningpo,  Foochow,  and  Amoy.  Hangchow,  on  Hang- 
chow  Bay,  is  at  the  southern  entrance  of  the  Grand  Canal,  and  is 
also  able  to  communicate  with  the  interior  by  means  of  the  Tsien- 
tang ;  it  is  connected  with  Shanghai,  and  will  eventually  be  con- 
nected with  Ningpo,  by  the  Shanghai-Hangchow-Ningpo  railway. 
Ningpo,  near  the  south  shore  of  Hangchow  Bay,  and  Foochow,  on 
the  Min-ho,  about  35  miles  from  its  mouth,  both  have  considerable 
local  trade.  Amoy,  situated  on  an  island  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Lung-kiang  on  the  south-east  coast  of  Fokien,  was  formerly  the 
great  centre  for  the  export  of  tea  from  Formosa.  Since  the 
annexation  of  that  island  by  Japan  this  trade  has  been  lost, 
and  Amoy,  which  has  an  excellent  harbour,  is  seeking  to  develop 
Commercial  relations  with  the  interior  of  Fokien. 

I^The  Si-kiang  Basin. — ^The  four  provinces  of  Yunnan,  Kweichow, 
Kwangsi,  and  Kwangtung  may  be  considered  as  forming  the  basin 
of  the  Si-kiang,  although  the  north  of  Yunnan  and  Kweichow  is 
drained  to  the  Yangtse,  the  south  of  Yimnan  to  the  Red  River  of 
Tongking,  and  the  west  to  the  Mekong  and  the  Salwen.  The  whole 
region  is  mountainous  in  character ;  in  the  west  the  ranges  run  from 
north  to  south  but  further  east  their  trend  is  from  north-east  to 
south-west.  The  different  provinces  may  be  regarded  as  so  many 
steps  downward  from  the  Tibetan  tableland  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
Yunnan,  which  is  the  first  step,  is  a  plateau  with  an  average  eleva- 
tion of  about  7,000  feet ;  it  slopes  towards  the  south  and  east, 
but  is  much  cut  up  by  mountain  ranges  which  enclose  the  high  plains 
upon  which  the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  Uve,  the  valleys  in  the 
west  and  south  being  generally  too  unhealthy  for  settlement. 
Kweichow,  which  is  the  second  step  downwards,  has  a  height 
varying  from  about  5,000  feet  in  the  west  to  less  than  3,000  feet 
in  the  east,  and  like  Yunnan  is  much  cut  up  by  mountain  ranges 
which  enclose  high  plains.  Kwangsi,  which  is  the  third  step,  is 
considerably  lower  than  Kweichow,  the  average  height  of  the 
mountains  being  from  2,000  to  3,000  feet.  In  Kwangtung  the 
land  gradually  descends  to  the  delta  of  the  Si-kiang. 

Throughout  the  whole  region  rice  is  the  staple  crop,  but  in  many 
of  the  upland  districts  wjieat,  barley,  and  beans  are  cultivated, 
while  maize  is  grown  in  Kweichow  and  Kwangsi  and  in  the  lowland 


272  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

valleys  of  Yunnan.  Opium  has  hitherto  been  an  important  crop 
in  Yunnan  and  KweichowTbut  in  both  provinces  the  amount  pro- 
duced is  rap^dlyjiecre^sing.  Tea  is  grown  to  some  extent  in  Yunnan 
and  Kwangtung,  but,  while  the  product  of  Yunnan  is  still  sought 
after,  that  of  Kwangtung  is  now  of  little  account  in  the  world's^ 
markets,  and  Canton  has  practically  entirely  lost  the  tea  trade  fori 
which  it  was  once  so  famous.  Wild  silk  is  obtained  in  Yunnan, 
and  in  Kwangtung  the  mulberry  is  cultivated,  but  the  silk  produced 
is  inignpr  in  quality  to  that  from  Kwangsi  and  Chekiang.  Among 
other  products  may  be  mentioned  cotton^,  which  is  grown  but  nijt 
to  a  great  extent,  ramie,  cassia,  and  spices. 

The  mineral  wealth  ^of  the  region,  has  as  yet  been  exploited  onlj 
in  a  superficial  way.  Coal  is  widely  distributed,  the  best  known 
mines  being  those  of  Shaochow-fu  in  Kwangtung,  and  iron,  copperv 
lead,  zinc,  as  well  as  gold  and  silver,  are  also  found  in  various  places. 
Tin^is  worked  on  an  extensive  scale,  but  by  native  methods,  at 
Kochiu,  near  Mengtze  in  Yunnan,  where  between  50,000  and  100,000 
men  are  employed,  according  to  the  season  of  the  year.  Quick 
^ilyer.is  obtained  in  Kweichow  and  antimony  in  Yunnan.  Attempts 
have  been  made  to  open  up  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  by 
foreign  capital  and  on  modern  lines,  but  so  far  they  do  not  appear 
to  have  met  with  much  success. 

The  manufactures  of  the  region,  which  are  not  of  great  importance 
except  in  Kwangtung,  include  the  production  of  silk  and  cotton 
goods,  the  preparation  of  tea,  paper-making,  and  a  few  other  indus- 
tries of  a  similar  nature.  Canton,  and  Fatshan  a  little  further  up* 
the  West  River,  are  great  industrial  centres  and  manufacture 
cotton,  silk,  and  woollen  goods,  lacquer-ware,  matting,  and  a  great 
variety  of  articles  of  minor  importance. 

The  Si-kiang  with  its  tributaries  is  the  great  means  of  communi 
cation  in  the  region  which  it  drains.  During  periods  of  high  water 
the  main  stream  is  navigable  by  steamers  as  far  as  Wuchow,  on 
the  borders  of  Kwangsi,  but  at  other  seasons  of  the  year  only  smaller 
boats  can  get  as  far  as  that  town.  Hence  there  has  been  a  great 
development  of  the  use  of  motor  boats  both  on  the  main  river  and 
on  its  tributaries,  and  by  means  of  these  not  only  Kwangtung  and 
Kwangsi,  but  to  some  extent  the  south  of  Kweichow  and  the  east 
of  Yunnan,  are  enabled  to  trade  with  Canton.  That  city  is  situated 
on  the  West  River,  a  distributary  of  the  Si-kiang,  and  owes  its 


THE   CHINESE   EMPIRE  273 

importance  as  a  commercial  centre  to  its  position.  It  is  connected 
by  waterways  with  almost  every  part  of  the  fertile  and  well- 
populated  province  of  Kwangtung,  and  has  trade  relations,  not  only 
with  the  remainder  of  the  basin  of  the  Si-kiang,  but  with  that  of  the 
Yangtse.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  in  easy  communication  with 
Hong-Kong,  and  large  ocean-going  steamers  are  able  to  ascend  the 
river  as  far  as  Whampoa,  twelve  miles  below  the  city.  Railways 
are  beginning  to  move  outwards  in  different  directions.  One 
line  connects  Canton  with  Kowloon,  opposite  the  island  of  Hong- 
Kong  ;  another  runs  to  Samshui,  at  the  confluence  of  the  North 
River  with  the  Si-kiang,  while  the  railway  to  Hankow  has  been 
completed  as  far  as  Lin  Kong  Hou,  75  miles  from  Canton.  At  the 
same  time  the  importance  of  Canton  has  been  adversely  affected 
I  to  some  extent  by  the  opening  to  foreign  trade  within  recent  years 
'  of  Wuchow,  which  is  now  the  entrepot  of  Kwangsi,  of  Samshui, 
i  which  taps  the  trade  of  the  North  River,  and  of  Kongmoon,  which 
I  serves  the  district  north  and  west  of  Macao.  Nevertheless,^anton 
continues  to  prosper,  largely  as  a  result  of  the  efforts  of  Its 
inhabitants  who  are  among  the  most^  energetic  and  industrious- 
people  in  China. 

"*"The^west~ahd  north  of  JYunnan  are  difficult  to  reach  by  way  of 
the  Si-kiang,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the  goods  imported  into  these 
districts  comes  from  Burma  through  Tengyueh  to  Tali-fu,  whence 
it  is  distributed  over  the  country,  some  of  it  even  finding  its  way 
northwards  into  Szechwan.  The  route  from  Burma  is  a  mule 
track,  and,  as  the^"arnage  of  goods  along  it  is  both  tedious  and 
costly,  trade  may  be  diverted  from  it  to  some  extent  by  the  new 
route  opened  up  by  the  French  railway  from  Haiphong  in  Tongking 
to  Yunnan-fu  by  way  of  Mengtze.  Various  schemes  have  also  been 
suggested  for  connecting  some  Burmese  ports  by  rail  with  Tali-fu, 
and  Yunnan-fu  with  Chengtu,  but  it  is  unhkely  that  anything  will 
be  done  in  either  direction  in  the  immediate  future. 

Great  Britain,  France,  and  Portugal  have  each  a  foothold  in  the 
province  of  Kwangtung.  To  Great  Britain  belongs  the  island  of 
Hong-Kong  and  the  leased  territory  of  Kowloon  on  the  mainland. 
Portugal  possesses  Macao,  and  France  has  recently  acquired  control 
of  Kwangchow-wan.  Hong-Kong,  which  has  an  excellent  harbour, 
is  thus  enabled  to  perform  the  same  functions  as  a  collecting 
and  distributing -centre  for  South  China  that  Shanghai  performs 


V 


274  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

for  Central  and  Northern  Chiaa.  It  is  also  engaged  in  sugar 
refining  and  other  industries.  Macao  has  lost  much  of  the  import- 
ance which  it  formerly  possessed,  and  Kwangchow-wan  has  not 


I 


% 


yet  developed  much  trade  of  its  own. 

^C^anchumaV-To  the  east  of  the  Mongolian  Highlands  lies  a  region 
to  which  the  name  of  the  Manchurian  Lowland  has  been  given 
South-east  of  the  Khingan  range  it  forms  a  high  plain  with  an 
elevation  varying  from  800  to  1,500  feet.  This  plain,  which  is 
drained  in  the  north  by  the  Amur,  in  the  centre  by  the  Sungari,  and  in 
the  south  by  the  Liao,  is  traversed  by  several  ranges  of  hills  generally 
trending  from  south-west  to  north-east,  and,  as  a  result,  presents, 
on  the  whole,  a  somewhat  mountainous  appearance.  On  the  east  J 
it  is  separated  from  the  low  plain  occupied  by  the  Lower  Amur, 
the  Lower  Sungari,  and  the  Yalu,  by  ranges  of  hills  which  rise  to 
over  6,000  feet.  To  the  east  of  the  low  plain,  again,  are  mountai 
ranges  which  occupy  the  country  between  it  and  the  Pacific 

The  political  region,  to  which  the  name  of  Manchuria  is  give 
does  not,  however,  occupy  the  whole  area  just  described,  and  in  th 
north  does  not  extend  beyond  the  Amur,  nor  in  the  east  beyon* 
the  Ussuri.  The  greater  part  of  it  belongs  to  the  high  and  lo 
plains,  and  only  in  the  north-west  does  it  stretch  beyond  thi 
Khingan  mountains  and  occupy  a  small  part  of  the  Mongoha] 
plateau. 

Agriculture  is  at  the  present  time  the  chief  occupation  of  t 
inhabitants  of  Manchuria.  The  crops  include  several  varieti 
of  millet,  the  most  important  being  tall  millet  {Holcus  Sorghum 
which  is  the  staple  food  of  the  people.  Wheat,  barley,  and  buc 
wheat  are  grown,  especially  in  the  northern  province,  while  rice  an^ 
mai;se  are  cultivated  to  some  extent  in  the  south.  The  area  und 
soya  beans  has  increased  greatly  within  recent  years  and  is  like! 
to  continue  to  do  so  for  some  time  to  come  as  the  northern  district: 
where  climatic  conditions  favour  the  growth  of  the  best  beans,  a 
gradually  being  brought  under  cultivation.  The  ^ya.begji  can 
utilised  in  a  great  variety  of  ways.  For  human  food  it  is  converter 
into  a  sauce,  or  worked  up  as  a  paste,  or  made  into  bean  curd ;  it  caj 
also  be  used  as  a  table  vegetable  or  converted  into  a  kind  of  confeC 
tionery.  The  oil  which  is  extracted  from  it  is  used  as  an  illuminani 
and  as  a  lubricant,  and  also  enters  into  the  manufacture  of  a  variet 
of  articles  such  as  waterproofs,  umbrellas,  varnish,  and  ink,  while  i, 


THE   CHINESE   EMPIRE  275 

Europe,  to  which  it  has  recently  been  imported  in  increasing  quanti- 
ties, it  forms  an  important  constituent  in  the  manufacture  of  soap. 
The  refuse  from  the  beans  after  the  oil  has  been  extracted  is  given 
as  food  to  cattle  or  is  used  as  manure.  Q^iiiBJ  has  hitherto  been 
cultivated  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  but  especially  to  the 
north  of  the  Sungari,  one  reason  being  that  it  was  better  able  than 
most  other  articles  to  stand  the  heavy  cost  of  carriage  to  the  coast. 
Wild  silk  is  obtained  in  considerable  quantities  in  that  part  of 
f^igtien  in  which  the  hills  slope  towards  the  south.  Ginseng 
{Panax  ginseng),  which  the  Chinese  beUeve  to  have  valuable 
medicinal    quahties,  grows    both  in  a  wild  and  in  a  cultivated 

condition.  ^ ^ 

Trapping  is  carried  on  in  the  mountains  and  forests  of  the  north, 
where  bears,  leopards,  tigers,  sables,  and  squirrels  are  all  found. 
In  these  districts,  also,  there  are  thousands  of  farms  where 
dogs  and  goats,  which  have  developed  magnificent  coats  of  hair 
to  protect  them  from  the  cold  of  winter,  are  reared  for  the  sake 
of  their  skins. 

The  rnineral  wealth  of  Manchuria  is  as  yet  but  little  developed. 
^OldJs  worked  by  native  methods  in  several  places,  but  the  output 
is  not  great.  The  principal  productive  coal  mines,  which  are 
situated  at  Fushun,  near  Mukden,  and  are  owned  by  the 
South  Manchurian  Railway  (Japanese),  yielded  in  1911-12  over 
1,300,000  tons  of  good  bituminous  coal.  Iron  is  found  north  of 
Mukden. 

The  manufactures  of  Manchuria  are  not  important.  Much  of 
the  millet  grown  in  the  north  is  too  far  from  good  Unes  of  communi- 
cation to  enable  it  to  make  its  way  to  the  coast,  and  is  disposed 
of  to  the  local  distilleries.  At  Newchwang  and  Dairen  there  are 
numerous  mills  for  the  extraction  of  oil  from  soya  beans  and  the 
manufacture  of  bean-cake.  Chinchow-fu,  in  Fengtien,  is  the  chief 
centre  where  carpets  and  rugs  are  made  from  camel's-hair  and 
sheep's  wool  imported  from  Mongolia. 

The  develo£ment  _of  Manchuria  in  the  past  has  been  much 
retarded  by  the  absence  of  good  means  of  camnaunication.  The 
roads,  which  are  badly  made,  are  impassable  quagmires  during  the 
rainy  season,  and  are  only  available  for  heavy  traffic  when  they  are 
frozen  hard  during  the  winter  months.  The  Liao,  on  the  other  hand, 
offers  a  good  means  of  penetration  into  the  interior  during  the 

i8— (1326) 


276  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

summer,  but  is  icebound  in  winter.  In  these  circumstances  rail- 
ways are  invaluable.  The  trans-Siberian  runs  across  Northern 
Manchuria  to  Vladivostok  by  Harbin,  where  a  line  breaks  off  for 
Mukden  and  Port  Arthur.  From  Changchun  to  Port  Arthur 
this  hne  is  under  the  control  of  Japan  and  is  known  as  the  South 
Manchuria  Railway.  Mukden  is  connected  with  Tientsin  by  the 
North  China  Railway,  and  with  Antung  by  a  Hne  which  is  con- 
tinued through  Korea  to  Fusan.  Newchwang  is  Hnked  up  by  short 
branches  with  the  Unes  from  Mukden  to  Tientsin  and  to  Port 
Arthur. 

The  two  principal  ports,  Newchwang  and  Dairen,  compete 
with  one  another.  The  former  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Liao  river,  and  has  the  further  advantage  of  offering  a  shorter 
land  route  than  Dairen  into  the  interior.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
icebound  during  the  winter  months ;  and  it  has  to  some  extent  been 
silted  up,  though  steps  are  now  being  taken  to  remedy  this  defect. 
Dairen,  to  the  east  of  Port  Arthur,  in  the  leased  territory  acquired 
from  Russia  at  the  conclusion  of  the  Russo-Japanese  war,  is  open 
all  the  year  round,  and  the  longer  land  route  which  it  involves 
to  the  interior  is  compensated  for  to  some  extent  by  favourable 
rates  on  the  South  Manchuria  Railway,  offered  by  the  Japanese  who 
are  doing  all  in  their  power  to  develop  the  port. 
W  SiNKiANG  or  Eastern  Turkestan  includes  two  distinct  regions, 
1/  Kashgaria  and  Dzungaria.  The  first  of  these  consists  in  the  main  of 
the  basin  of  the  Tarim,  which  is  surrounded  on  three  sides  by 
the  Kwen-lun,  the  Pamirs,  and  the  Tian  Shan.  The  climate  is  arid, 
and  the  greater  part  of  the  country  enclosed  by  these  mountains 
is  covered  with  shifting  sands.    Cu^i^ssiJiQIjJs^nlj;^^  along 

the  banks  of  streams  which  descend  from  the  snow-covered  fahgeiB 
around,  but  with  few  exceptions  lose  themselves  as  they  approach 
the  desert.  The  principal  products  are  cereals,  including  wheat, 
barley,  and  rice,  cotton,  and  fruits.  Horses,  camels,  sheep,  and  goats 
are  aJso  raised  in  considerable  numbers.  The  more  important  towns, 
Khotan,  Kashgar,  and  Yarkand  contain  bazaars  in  which  are  sold 
carpets,  and  cotton,  woollen,  and  silk  goods,  the  chief  manufactures 
of  the  people. 

Dzungaria  lies  between  the  Tian  Shan  and  the  Altai.  Much 
of  the  land  is  exceedingly  poor,  and  it  is  only  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
rivers,  and  especially  in  the  valley  of  the  lU,  that  cultivation  and 


THE  CHINESE  EMPIRE  '        277 

settlement  are  possible.  The  northern  slopes  of  the  Tian  Shan 
provide  considerable  areas  of  good  pasture  land.  Unimtsi,  the 
chief  town,  trades  in  skins  and  furs.  Kuldja,  the  only  other  town 
of  note,  is  on  the  Hi. 

Formerly,  all  trade  between  China  and  the  west  went  through 
Turkestan,  the  most  frequented  route  passing  by  Lanchow  and 
Ansichow  in  Kansu,  and  Hami  in  Turkestan,  to  Turfan  where  it 
bifurcated.  The  northern  branch  crossed  the  Bogdo-ola  to  reach 
Urumtsi,  and  re-crossed  the  Tian  Shan  to  Kuldja,  while  the  southern, 
keeping  to  the  south  of  the  Tian  Shan,  went  on  to  Kashgar. 
^  Tibet. — ^The  greater  part  of  the  Tibetan  plateau  is  of  little 
Gnomic  importance,  and  is  only  frequented  during  the  summer 
months  by  a  few  nomad  tribes.  In  the  §puth,  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Indus  and  Brahmaputra,  and  in  the  southzgast,  in  the  valleys  of 
those  rivers  which  flow  from  the  Tibetan  plateau  through  China 
and  Indo-China,  cultivation  is  possible,  and  it  is  there  that  settle- 
ment has  taken  place.  The  principal  agricultural  products  include 
the  hardier  cereals,  vegetables,  and  fruits,  but  the  chief  wealth  of 
the  people  is  to  be  found  in  their  herds  of  goats,  sheep^  asses,  and 
yaks.  Mineral  wealth  appears  to  be  considerable,  and  ggJi- 
has  long  been  extensively  worked  by  primitive  methods.  Trade, 
which  is  carried  on  mainly  with  China  but  to  some  extent  with 
India,  consists  in  the  export  of  gold,  wool,  musk,  and  hides,  and 
in  the  import  of  tea  and  cotton  goods.  The  principal  routes  from 
China  lead  to  Lhasa  from  Chengtu  in  Szechwan,  by  way  of 
Tarchendo  and  Batang,  and  from  Sining-fu  in  Kansu,  by  way  of 
Donkyr  and  the  Tangla  Pass.     From  India  the  chief  road  is  by 

:kim  and  the  Chumbi  valley  to  Gyantse. 

[ONGOLIA  includes  parts  of  two  of  the  great  physical  regions  of 
XsV.  The  north-west  of  the  country  consists  of  the  Altai  and  other 
mountains  which  belong  to  the  Central  Asian  Highlands,  while 
the  remainder  forms  the  Mongohan  plateau  which  has  an  average 
elevation  of  3,000  to  4,000  feet,  and  is  part  of  the  region  of  relative 
depression  north  of  the  folded  Kwen-lun  mountains.  The  whole 
country  has  an  extreme  cHmate,  the  summers  being  hot  and  the 
winters. cold.  In  the  desert  oi'iSobi,  in  the  south,  the  animaljr,^in> 
fall  is  less  than  10  inches,  but  in  the  remainder  of  the  country  it  is 
generally  sufficient  for  the  growth  of  grass  on  the  plateau,  and  of 
coniferous  trees  on  many  of  the  mountain  slopes.     Hence  the 


278  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

people  are  almost  exclusively  confined  to  pastoral  pursuits  and 
possess  great  numbers  of  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  camels,  with 
which  they  wander  over  the  country,  ever  on  the  search  for  fresh 
pasture  land.  Towns  are  accordingly  few,  and  Urga  alone  is 
of  any  importance.  Formerly,  the  tea  sent  from  China  to  Russia 
was  carried  by  Mongol  caravans  from  Kalgan  to  Kiakhta,  but 
since  the  opening  of  the  trans-Siberian  Hne  most  of  it  has  gone 
by  rail.  The  exports  of  MongoHa  consist  of  pastoral  products 
and  are  sent  to  China,  tea,  cotton,  and  miscellaneous  articles  being 
i^eceived  in  exchange. 

"Commerce. — ^The  annual  value  of  the  exports  of  China  for  th^ 
three  years  1908-9-10  averaged  £44,000,000,  while  the  average  value 
of  the  imports  for  the  same  period  was  £56,000,000.  Between 
45  ansl^per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the  exports  is  made  up  of  raw 
and  mamifaCjUired  silk,  soya  beans,  bean-cake  and  bean-oil,  and 
te^.  China  ranks  next  to  Japan  as  a  silk-producing  country,  and 
her  output  might  be  greatly  increased  both  in  value  and  amount 
were  improved  methods  of  rearing  the  silkworm  and  manufacturing 
the  silk  more  generally  adopted.  With  the  introduction  of  soya 
beans  and  their  products  into  Europe  during  the  last  few  years 
the  trade  in  them  has  rapidly  developed,  and  they  now  hold  the 
second  place  among  the  exports  of  the  country.  Tea  is  exported 
mainly  to  Russia  and  also  to  the  United  States,  but  the  British 
market  has  been  almost  entirely  lost,  chiefly  owing  to  the  failure 
of  the  Chinese  to  provide  a  tea  at  once  good  and  cheap.  Among 
other  articles  exported  are  raw  cotton,  sesamum,  hides,  straw-braid, 
and  tin  which  together  make  up  nearly  one-seventh  of  the  total 
exports.  Chinese  cotton  is  sent  to  Japan,  where  it  is.. preferred  to 
Indian,  as  it  is  whiter.  On  the  other  hand,  Indian  cotton  is  imported 
to  China  for  the  mills  at  Shanghai,  where  it  is  in  demand,  as  it  gives 
a  better  staple  than  Chinese.  The  exportation  of  cotton  from  China 
shows  signs  of  increasing  as  it  is  beginning  to  be  cultivated  in  place 
of  opium.  The  principal  imports  of  China  consist  of  cotton  goods, 
opium,  rice,  oil,  sugar,  metals,  minerals  and  railway  plant,  fish, 
and  coal.  During  the  three  years,  1908-9-10,  these  accounted  for 
just  two-thirds  of  the  total  value  of  all  the  goods  brought  into  the 
country  from  abroad.  Almost  30  per  cent,  of  the  total  imports 
consisted  of  cotton  goods  imported  from  the  United  Kingdom, 
Japan,  India,  and   the    United   States      The    United    Kingdom 


\ 


THE   CHINESE  EMPIRE  279 

supplies  the  bulk  of  the  manufactured  goods,  though  Japan  and  the 
United  States  share  the  trade  in  plain  grey  sheetings,  and  Japan 
is  gaining  control  of  the  market  in  drills.  Yarn  is  obtained  mainly 
from  India,  though  within  recent  years  the  position  of  that  country 
has  been  seriously  threatened  by  the  activity  of  the  Japanese  mills. 
In  China  hand  labour  is  still  in  many  respects  cheaper  than  machine 
labour,  and  the  imported  yam  is  used  along  with  Chinese  cotton 
in  the  domestic  manufacture  of  a  rough  but  durable  cotton  fabric. 
Opium  still  held  second  place  in  the  Hst  of  imports  in  1907-10, 
but  this  was  in  part  accounted  for  by  the  rapid  rise  in  price 
consequent  upon  the  reduction  both  of  the  area  cultivated  at  home 
and  of ^ the  amount  suppHed  from  abroad.  Rice  js  imported 
from  Indo-China  mainly  to  supply  the  dense  population  of  the 
province  of  Kwangtung.  Kerosene  oil,  which  comes  chiefly  from 
the  United  States,  Sumatra,  and  Borneo,  has  grown  greatly  in 
favour  with  the  Chinese  during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  and  has 
largely  displaced  vegetable  oils  as  an  illuminant.  Sugar  is  im- 
ported from  Java  and  the  Phihppines,  coal  from  Japan  and  Hong- 
Kong  (probably  from  Great  Britain),  and  iron  and  steel  goods  and 
railway  plant  from  the  United  Kingdom,  Belgium,  Germany,  and 
the  United  States.  ^ 

Korea 

In  the  peninsula  of  Korea,  as  in  Eastern  Asia  generally,  the 
mountains  tend  to  run  parallel  to  the  coast  line.  In  the  north, 
where  they  are  a  continuation  of  those  of  eastern  Manchuria,  they 
cut  across  the  peninsula,  but  further  south  they  form  an  axis 
to  it  and  divide  ft  in1:o  two  slopes,  an  eastern  and  a  western.  On 
the  east  they  present  a  steep  escarpment  to  the  sea  fiom  which 
they  are  separated  by  a  narrow  coastal  plain,  but  on  the  west  the 
slope  is  more  gradual,  the  rivers  are  larger,  and  there  are  numerous 
valleys  which  contain  much  fertile  soil.  It  is  on  the  west  accordingly 
that  the  bulk  of  the  population  is  found.  CUmatic  conditions  are 
somewhat  more  favourable  than  in  corresponding  latitudes  on  the 
mainland,  the  winters  being  milder  and  the  summers  cooler.  The 
rainfall  occurs  in  the  §ummer  and  is  greater  on  the  east  coast 
th^  on  the  west. 

1  Mongolia,  supported  by  Russia,  has  recently  asserted  its  independence. 


280  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

The  principal  crops  are  rice,  beans,  barley,  and  wheat,  and 
attempts,  apparently  successful,  are  being  made  to  develop  cotton- 
growing  and  sericulture.  Ginseng  is  abundant  and  its  sale  is  a 
profitable  government  monopoly.  The  minerals  include  gold,  iron, 
coal,  and  copper,  but  with  few  exceptions  they  have  hitherto  been 
worked  in  a  most  primitive  fashion.  Manufactures,  which  are  of 
little  importance,  are  mainly  concerned  with  the  supply  of  local 
needs.  The  communications  of  the  country  are  bad.  The  principal 
railway  is  that  which  runs  from  Fusan  to  Antung  with  branches  to 
Seoul  and  Chemulpo.  The  exports  include  rice,  beans,  hides,  and 
ginseng,  while  cotton  and  silk  goods,  oil,  and  metals  are  the  principal 
imports.     Fusan  and  Chemulpo  are  the  chief  ports. 

The  Koreans  display  Jiltle  energy  either  in  poHtical  or  economic 
matters,  and  have  usually  been  dependent  on  one  or  other  of  their 
neighbours.  Their  country  was  annexed  by  Japan  in  1910,  and  may 
for  all  practical  purposes  be  regarded  as  part  of  the  Island  Empire. 


CHAPTER   XXVI 

JAPAN 

The  five  large  and  four  thousand  small  islands  which  form  the 

nucleus  of  the  Empire  of  Japan  are  the  remains  of  a  great  mountain 

system  lying  off  the  east  coast  of  Asia,  with  which  they  were  once 

connected.    Their  total  area  is  about  161,000  square  miles,  or  one 

and  a  third  that  of  the  British  Isles.     The  largest  is  Honshiu, 

which  contains  about  54  per  cent,  of  the  total  extent  of  the  country, 

and  is  the  centre  both  of  its  political  and  economic  development. 

The  physical  configuration  and  structure  of  this  island  are  extremely 

complicated.  -|The  general  trend  of  the  mountains  is  N.N.W.  in 

the  northern  half,  and  W.S.W.  in  the  southern,  but  in  the  vicinity 

of  the  great  rift  valley,  which  runs  across  the  middle  of  the  island 

from  north  to  south,  they  bend  round  towards  the  zone  of  fracture, 

thus  giving  rise  to  a  number  of  meridional  ranges  in  central  Honshiu. 

In  the  northern  part  of  the  island  the  main  range  consists  of  granitic 

rocks  overlain  by  volcanic  outpourings,  while  further  to  the  east  are 

ranges  composed  of  schists  and  sedimentary  rocks,  and  to  the 

west  numerous  volcanic  mountains.      To  the  west  of  the  rift  valley 

there  appear  in  south  Kiushiu,  in  Shikoku,  and  in  the  Kii  peninsula, 

folded  sedimentary  rocks,  behind  which  Eire  the  southern  schist 

mountains.    Further  north,^he  islands  of  the  Inland    Sea    are 

mainly  granitic,  as  is  the  case  with  the  mountains  of  Honshiu,  l5dng 

immediately  to  the  north  of  that  sea,  while  beyond  these  again  there 

are  volcanic  mountains.     Between  these  different  mountain  ranges 

and  along  parts  of  the  coast,  there  he  numerous  plains  of  recent 

origin,  the  most  important  being  the  Kitakami  plain  between  the 

central  and  eastern  ranges  of  the  north,  the  plain  of  Echigo  on  the 

west  coast,  the  Kwanto  plain,  the  largest  in  the  country,  round 

Tokio,  the  Mino-Owari  plain  to  the  west  of  the  meridional  mountains 

in  central  Honshiu,  and  the  Kinai  plain,  which  contains  the  cities 

of  Kyoto  and  Osaka.     In  Shikoku  there  are  several  plains  of  limited 

extent,  while  in  Kiushiu  the  most  important  is  that  of  Tsukushi 

in  the  north  of  the  island. 

Of  the  other  parts  of  the  country,  Yezo,  renamed  the  Hokkaido, 
is  very  mountainous,  owing  to  the  fact  that  two  ranges  appear  to 
cross  one  another,  the  schist  range  of  Sakhalin  and  the  volcanic 

281 


282  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

range  of  the  Kuriles.  Formosa,  acquired  from  the  Chinese  in  1895, 
is  somewhat  larger  than  Kiushiu.  A  high  mountain  range  composed 
of  ancient  rocks  extends  along  the  eastern  part  of  the  island,  while 
the  west  consists  generally  of  an  undulating,  fertile  plain  of  Tertiary 
and  later  times. 

Climate. — ^The  climate  of  the  Japanese  Islands  shows  consider- 
able variations  from  north  to  south  and  from  east  to  west.  This  is 
due  to  a  combination  of  circumstances — ^the  great  latitude  over 
■  which  the  islands  extend,  their  position  with  regard  to  the  Asiatic 
land  mass,  and  the  influence  of  the  sea  with  its  warm  and  cold 
currents. 

The  heat  of  sunmier  and  the  cold  of  winter  are  alike  less  extrenie 
than  on  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  coast  of  Asia.  The  warm 
Pacific  current,  or  Kuro  Siwo,  bifurcates  to  the  south  of  Japan  and 
washes  both  its  eastern  and  western  shores.  The  eastern  and 
stronger  branch  follows  the  direction  of  the  coast  as  far  as  latitude 
38°  N.,  after  which  it  bears  away  across  the  Pacific,  while  the 
western  and  weaker  branch  enters  the  Sea  of  Japan  by  the  Tsushima 
Strait,  and  leaves  it  by  La  Perouse  and  Tsugaru  Straits  in  the 
north.  At  the  same  time,  one  cold  current  from  the  north  passes 
along  the  eastern  coasts  of  Hokkaido  and  Honshiu  as  far  as  latitude 
39°  N.,  while  another  passes  along  the  western  coast  until  it  is  lost 
in  the  warm  current  moving  from  the  south.  The  warm  currents 
tend  to  raise  the  temperature,  especially  on  the  east  coast,  during 
the  winter  months,  and  the  proximity  of  the  sea  reduces  it  in 
summer. 

The  direction  of  the  winds  is  another  important  factor  in  the 
determination  of  Japanese  climate.  During  the  winter,  when  anti- 
cyclonic  conditions  prevail  over  the  Asiatic  continent,  cold  winds 
blow  outward  from  Siberia  in  a  south  and  south-easterly  direction; 
and  strike  the  west  coasts  of  Japan.  On  the  other  hand,  the  moun- 
tainous backbone  of  the  country  shelters  the  land  lying  to  the  east 
of  it,  and  for  this  reason  also  the  eastxoast  is  warmer  than  the-west 
in  winter.  During  the  simyn^r  months  Japan  lies  within  the  mon- 
soon area,  and  southerly  winds  prevail.  The  heayiegt  rainfall, 
therefore,  occurs  at  this  season,  although  to  the  north-west  coasts 
considerable  precipitation  is  brought  by  the  continental  winds  of 
winter  which  pick  up  moisture  as  they  blow  across  the  Sea  of  Japan. 

In  the  Hokkaido  the- winter  i&  long^ajid  cold,  and  during  it  the 


JAPAN  283 

mean  temperature  is  generally  below  zero,  while  in  summer,  in  the 
warmer  districts,  it  is  as  high  as  70°  F.  Somewhat  similar  con- 
ditions prevail  in  the  northern  part  of  Honshiu,  though  the  cold 
of  winter  is  less  and  the  heat  of  summer  somewhat  greater.  In 
south-west  Honshiu,  in  Shikoku,  and  in  Kiushiu,  climatic  conditions 
are  much  more  favourable.  The  mean  winter  temperature  nowhere 
falls  much  below  40°  F.,  while  in  summer  it  is  between  70°  F.  and 
80°  F.  in  the  warmer  districts.  Formosa  has  a  tropical  climate 
except  in  the  highlands. 

The  rainfall  is  considerable  over  the  greater  part  of  Japan.  On 
the  south  and  north-west  of  Honshiu  it  is  over  60  inches,  and  in 
places  over  80,  while  in  the  interior  and  on  the  north-east  coast 
it  is  between  40  and  60  inches.  In  the  Hokkaido  it  is  generally 
between  30  and  40  inches,  except  along  the  north-west  and 
south-west  coasts,  where  it  is  somewhat  higher.  Formosa  has 
from  80  to  over  100  inches. 

Vegetation. — ^The  forests  of  Japan  belong  to  several  distinct 
types,  the  distribution  of  each  of  which  is  determined  by  tjie  climatic 
conditions  just  described.  The  cool  temperate  forest  extends  over 
Honshiu,  north  of  the  thirty-sixth  parallel,  and  over  the  \diole-  of 
Hokkaido.  In  the  north  of  the  latter  island  coniferae  alone  are  found 
but  further  south  coniferous  and  deciduous  trees  intermingle.  Among 
the  principal  species  of  this  forest  are  the  pine,  cypress,  fir,  beech, 
walnut,  and  ash,  and  these  are  also  found  at  higher  altitudes 
further  south. 

Over  southern  Honshiu,  Shikoku,  and  Kiushiu,  the  prevailing 
type  of  vegetation  is  the  warm  temperate  rainforest,  in  which 
deciduous  and  broadleaved  trees  intermingle.  Camphor,  box- 
wood, and  several  varieties  of  oak  and  pine  are  characteristic  of 
the  region.  In  Formosa  the  forest  is  tropical,  and  the  banyan,  the 
bamboo,  and  the  camphor  tree  are  among  its  chief  products. 

Natural  Regions. — It  is  difficult  to  divide  Japan  into  natiural 
regions  owing  to  the  way  in  which  uplands  and  lowlands  are  distri- 
buted, and  to  the  still  undeveloped  condition  of  much  of  the  country, 
but  certain  broad  distinctions  may  be  drawn.  The  Hokkaido 
differs  greatly  from  southern  Honshiu,  Shikoku,  and  Kiushiu,  while 
northern  Honshiu  occupies  an  intermediate  position.  Formosa, 
again,  is  partly  within  the  tropics  and  its  products  are  of  a  tropical 
nature. 


284  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

General  CoNSiDERATiONS.-^Owing  to  the  irregular  topography 
of  the  country  the  cultivable  land  is  very  limited,  and  does  not 
exceed  20  per  cent,  of  the  whole  area.  >l  As  Japan  for  long  sup- 
ported a  population  at  least  as  great  as  that  of  Great  Britain  now  is, 
without  importing^  food  supplies  from  abroad,  it  is  obvious  that 
cultivation  must  have  been  very,  intensive  in  character,  vftgricul- 
tural  holdings  were  generally  small,  and  in  many  cases  did  not 
exceed  one  acre,  but  the  farmer  and  his  family  supported  themselves 
by  engaging  in  one  or  other  of  various  subsidiary  employments. 
What  manufactures  there  were,  were  therefore  chiefly  carried  on 
as  domestic  industries,  and  the  modern  factory  system  did  not 
exist.  Since  Japan  within  recent  years  became  a  food  importing 
country,  various  attempts  have  been  made  to  increase  still  further 
the  productivity  of  the  soil,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to  extend  the 
margin  of  cultivation  by  bringing  in  land,  hitherto  beUeved  to  be 
useless. 

The  Hokkaido,  which  measures  just  over  one-sixth  of  the  whole 
country,  consists  to  a  great  extent  of  fgre^t-cavered  mpuntains. 
It  is  only  in  the  south-west,  in  the  valley  of  the  Ishikari,  and  in  the 
south-east,  in  the  valley  of  the  Tokachi,  that  lowlands  are  developed 
to  any  extent.  T^he  relatively  unfavourable  conditions  of  soil  and 
climate  have  prevented  the  growth  of  a  large  population,  and, 
although  the  number  of  inhabitants  has  nearly  doubled  within  the 
last  fifteen  years,  it  is  still  less  than  one  and  a  quarter  millions,  while 
the  density  is  only  23  to  the  square  mile  as  against  300  to  the 
square  mile  in  the  whole  of  Japan.  The  cultivated  land  amounts 
to  less  than  3  per  cent,  of  the  total  area,  and  on  it  the  chief  crop 
consists  6i  beans,  although  some  rice  and  other  cereals  are  also 
grown.VIt  is  believed  that  there  are  considerable  areas  which 
might  be  converted  into  good  pasture  land.  The  export  of  timber 
is  a  rapidly  growing  industry,  hard  woods  being  obtained  in  the 
centre  and  south  of  the  island  and  soft  woods  in  the  north.  The 
coal  mines  of  the  Hokkaido,  which  occur  in  the  west,  are  being 
developed,  and  now  produce  over  one  and  a  half  million  tons  of 
coal  annually.  Other  minerals^lso  occur,  but  none  is  as  yet  of 
much  importance.  f  j 

Hakodate,  has  hitherto  beeiythe  chief  town  and  port  of  the  island,' 
mainly  as  a  result  of  the  fact Nthat  it  is  situated  on  a  good  harbouij 


JAPAN  285 

The  difficulties  of  communication  inland,  and  the  proximity  of 
Otaru  and  Muroran  to  important  producing  centres,  have  led  to 
a  relative  decline  on  the  part  of  Hakodate.  Otaru,  situated  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Ishikari  river,  serves  the  chief  agricultural 
districts,  and  is  also  the  principal  timber  port  of  the  island,  while 
Muroran,  lying  to  the  east  of  Volcano  Bay,  is  the  outlet  for  the  coal 
mines.  Large  steel  works  are  being  constructed  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  latter  town,  and  it  is  hoped  to  utilise  the  magnetic  iron  in  the 
sands  of  Volcano  Bay.  Kushiro,  which  is  connected  by  rail 
with  the  Tokachi  valley,  will  probably  become  the  chief  port  of 
south-eastern  Hokkaido. 

HoNSHiu,  Shikoku,  and  Kiushiu. — ^Northern  Honshiu  is  in 
some  respects  very  different  from  the  remainder  of  this  region. 
Its  climate  and  vegetation  are  intermediate  between  those  of 
Hokkaido  and  Southern  Japan,  and,  while  rice  is  grown  throughout 
the  whole  area,  the  mulberry  and  tea  plant  are  not  extensively 
cultivated  further  north  than  central  Honshiu.  The  density  of 
population,  moreover,  is  250  to  the  square  mile  in  the  northern 
region  as  compared  with  500  in  the  southern,  and  the  latter  also 
contains  the  chief  mines,  factories,  and  towns.  As,  however,  there 
are  numerous  points  of  resemblance  between  the  two  regions,  they 
may  be  taken  together. 

'NThe  agricultural  land  of  Japan  consists  in  part  of  lowlying  fields, 
generally  built  up  of  recent  alluvium,  in  part  of  upland  districts, 
which  can  be  cultivated,  and  in  part  of  high  plains  and  pastures. 
The  first  of  these  are  known  as  paddy  Mds,  and  constitute  nearly  45 
per  cent,  of  the  agricultural  area.  i^The  chief  crop  grown  upon 
them  is  ri.ce,  which  is  the  staple  food-stuff  of  the  country,  and,  as  it 
almost  always  requires  the  aid  of  irrigation,  very  little  is  produced 
in  the  upland  district'fe.  About  30  per  cent,  of  the  paddy  fields 
bear  a  second  crop,  and  these,  along  with  the  upland  districts 
amounting  to  36  per  cent,  of  the  agricultural  area,  are  mainly 
cultivated  with  mugi  (that  is,  barley,  oats,  and  wheat),  beans, 
potatoes,  and  millets.  On  the  high  plains  and  pastures  which  are 
uncultivated,  a  certain  amount  of  stock  is  raised,  but  pastoral 
farming  is  not  yet,  and  perhaps  never  will  be,  an  important  industry 
in  Japan,  although  considerable  attention  is  now  being  given  to 
the  improvement  of  the  existing  breeds  of  horses,  cattle,  and  sheep. 
Next  in  importance  to  the  productifiaofio^ii  comes  the  cultivation 


286  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

of  the  mulberry  and  the  rearingjof  the  silkworm,  pursuits  which  are 
chiefly  carried  on  in  the  upland  districts  of  central  Honshiu.  Further 
south,  much  of  the  land  is  more  suitable  for  rice,  while  in  the  north 
the  danger  of  frost  renders  a  spring  crop  of  mulberry  leaves  uncer- 
tain. The  trees  are  planted  either  in  fields  or  in  hedges,  and  the 
area  cropped  in  this  way  is  gradually  extending,  being  now  about 
1,000,000  acres.  Three  crops  of  leaves  are  obtained  annually,  the 
spring  crop  being  the  most  important.  The  rearing  of  the  silkworm 
demands  considerable  skill  and  labour  on  the  part  of  the  farmer,  who 
has  been  aided  within  recent  years  by  the  assistance  of  Government 
experts.  Formerly,  the  cocoons  were  reeled  off  at  home  by  the 
farmers  themselves,  but;  since  the  establishment  of  filiatures  on 
modern  principles,  the  greater  part  of  this  branch  of  the  industry 
has  been  transferred  to  them.  Japan  is  now  the  principal 
silk-producing  country  in  the  world. 

The  tea-plant  is  grown  chiefly  in  Central  and  Southern  Japan, 
generally  on  the  lower  slopes  of  hills,  though,  where  there  is  -good 
drainage,  it  also  thrives  on  level  plains.  For  some  years  Japanese 
teas  seemed  to  be  deteriorating,  but  this  retrograde  movement 
appears  to  have  been  checked  by  improved  methods,  both  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  plant  and  in  the  preparation  of  the  leaf.  There  is 
a  large  home  consumption,  but  a  considerable  amount  remains 
for  export.  Among  other  plants  grown  are  flax,  hemp,  rape,  and 
rushes.  The  cultivation  of  cotton,  indigo,  and  tobacco  is 
declining. 

The  extensive  use  of  fish  for  food  in  Japan,  though  partly  resulting 
from  the  religious  ideas  of  a  people  who  do  not  eat  meat,  is  also 
accounted  for  in  part  by  the  distribution  in  the  surrounding  seas 
of  warm  and  cold  currents,  which  contain  a  great  variety  of  species, 
and  in  part  by  the  many  indentations  of  the  coast,  which  provide 
suitable  facilities  for  the  fishing  jjodiistry.  Over  800,000  people 
make  fishing  their  sole  occupation,  while  an  even  greater  number 
follow  it  in  addition  to  agricultural  or  other  pursuits.  With  the 
better  internal  communications  the  home  demand  has  increased, 
while  the  recent  improvement  in  fishing  vessels  has  led  to  a  much 
larger  supply  than  before.  Among  the  principal  fish  caught  are 
herring,  sardines,  bonito,  mackerel,  and  yellow-tail.  Japan  has  also  a 
number  of  vessels  engaged  in  whaling  and  sealing  in  the  North 
Pacific. 


JAPAN  287 

The  mineral  wealth  of  the  region  under  consideration  is  consider- 
able, but  it  has  as  yet  been  only  partially  exploited^  and  its  fufl 
extent  is  unknown.  Gold  and  silver  occur  chiefly  in  the  sedimentary 
and  eruptive  rocks  of  the  country,  but  the  total  production  is  not 
great,  and  the  value  of  the  annual  output  of  the  two  combined 
does  not  reach  £1,000,000.  Copper  is  much  more  important 
and  is  obtained  from  nearly  every  geological  formation  ;  it  is 
found  chiefly  in  veins  in  the  inner  mountain  zone,  and  embedded  in 
sedimentary  rocks  in  the  outer  zone.  The  production  is  now  over 
50,000  tons,  and  is  between  5  and  6  per  cent,  of  the  world's  output. 
Iron  yre.  including  both  magnetite  and  haematite,  is  fairly  well 
distributed  throughout  the  country.  The  former  is  extensively 
mined  at  the  Kamaishi  mines  in  the  province  of  Iwati,  in  northern 
Honshiu,  and  the  latter  in  Echigo  and  Rikuchiu.  The  total 
production  is  still  small. 

The  mostJiapfllJLaat.lJWperal  in  Japan  is  saaJ.  Its  distribution 
is  widespread,  but  it  occurs  chiefly  in  the  Mesozoic  and  older  Tertiary 
rocks,  while  it  is  not  found  in  those  of  Carboniferous  age.  The  coal 
in  the  Mesozoic  strata  is  mostly  semi-anthracitic  in  character ;  in 
the  older  Tertiary  rocks  it  ranges  from  lignitic  to  bituminous  ;  and 
in  the  y#unger  Tertiary  formations  it  is  generally  lignite  of  poor 
quality.  The  coal-bearing  Mesozoic  strata  occur  in  patches  in 
various  districts,  but  it  is  among  the  older  Tertiary  rocks  that  the 
chief  coal  mines  of  the  region  have  been  located.  The  most  important 
are  those  in  the  north  and  west  of  Kiushiu,  which  produced  in 
1910  over  11,000,000  tons,  or  more  than  75  per  cent,  of  the  entire 
Japanese  output.  In  Honshiu,  the  most  productive  mines  lie 
along  the  Pacific  seaboard  to  the  north-east  of  Tokio,  and  in  the 
same  year  they  produced  about  5  per  cent,  of  the  total  output. 
Petroleum  is  found  in  various  places,  but  practically  the  whole 
amount  obtained  at  present  comes  from  Echigo. 

Industry. — In  no  respect  is  the  recent  development  of  Japan 
more  marked  than  it  is  in  regard  to  the  industrial  changes  which 
have  taken  place.  Old  Japan,  it  is  true,  had  its  arts  and  handicrafts, 
many  of  which,  such  as  the  manufacture  of  porcelain  and  lacquer 
ware,  had  reached  a  high  state  of  perfection.  But  the  growth  of 
industry  on  modern  lines  is  typical  of  the  great  changes  which  were 
brought  about  by  the  renewal  of  intercourse  between  Japan  and  the 
West.    If  the  old  industries  have  not  perished  they  have  at  least 


288  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

suffered,  while,  if  the  new  have  passed  beyond  the  purely  experi- 
mental stage,  it  is  yet  too  early  to  predict  with  confidence  the 
economic  future  of  the  country. 

Of  the  more  important  industries  the  manufacture  of  silk  has 
perhaps  been  least  affected.  Reeling,  as  already  stated,  is  now 
mainly  performed  by  machinery,  but  in  the  weaving  of  silk  fabrics 
the  hand-loom  more  than  holds  its  own.  Power-looms  have  been 
introduced,  but  they  number  less  than  10  per  cent,  of  the  whole, 
and  must  be  regarded  as  in  the  nature  of  an  experiment.  The  chief 
centres  of  production  of  habutae  (Japanese  manufactured  silk)  are 
at  Fukui,  Kanazawa,  and  Kawamata,  in  the  prefectures  of  Fukui, 
Ishikawa,  and  Fukushima  respectively. 

Cotton-spinning  a.nd  weaving  have  been  influenced  to  a  much 
greater  extent  by  Western  methods.  The  industry  is  favoured  by 
the  cheapness  of  labour,  the  proximity  of  coal,  the  comparative 
ease  with  which  raw  material  can  be  obtained  from  India,  China, 
and  the  United  States,  and  the  neighbourhood  of  the  vast  Chinese 
market  for  the  manufactured  commodity.  There  are  now  over 
2,000,000  spindles  in  the  country,  and  both  yarn  and  piece  goods 
are  made  for  export.  The  bulk  of  the  yarn  produced  consists 
of  lower  counts  spun  from  Indian  cotton,  but  there  is  a  growing 
demand  for  American  cotton.  The  chief  manufacturing  districts 
are  in  and  around  Osaka,  Kobe,  Okayama,  Tokio,  and  Miye. 

The  production  of  iron  and  steel  within  the  country  itself  is 
making  much  slower  progress.  At  Wakamatsu,  in  the  north  of 
Kiushiu,  the  government  has  established  large  iron  and  steel 
works,  but,  although  coal  is  at  hand  and  iron  ore  can  easily  be 
imported  from  China,  the  venture  does  not  yet  appear  to  have  been 
a  commercial  success.  Engineering  establishments  have  sprung  up 
in  many  towns,  and  the  Japanese  are  now  able  to  do  much  of  their 
own  work  of  this  kind,  although  they  still  import  the  more  com- 
plicated and  delicate  machinery  which  they  require.  Shipbuilding 
is  carried  on  at  Nagasaki,  Kobe,  Osaka,  and  Tokio,  and  within  recent 
years  a  number  of  iron  and  steel  ships  have  been  built  at  these 
ports.  The  large  vessels  for  both  the  navy  and  the  mercantile  j 
marine  are  still  imported,  but  Japan  is  making  rapid  progress  j 
in  this  direction.  j 

Among  the  native_iiidustries  in  which  the  Japanese  excel  are  the  « 
manufacture   of   cloisonne   ware,    porcelain,    matting,    and   other  ; 


JAPAN  289 

articles   of   a   similar   nature  made  in  the  home   or  the   small 
workshop. 

Formosa,  which  has  an  area  of  about  14,000  square  miles  and 
a  population  of  about  3,000,000,  is  being  rapidly  developed  by 
the  Japanese.  The  low-lying  western  part  of  the  island  is  settled 
by  people  of  Chinese  stock,  while  the  mountainous  eastern  part  is 
occupied  by  aboriginal  tribes,  said  to  be  of  Malay  origin.  The 
products  of  the  island  are  tropical  and  varied.  The  southern 
plains,  which  receive  considerable  moisture  from  the  monsoon  in 
summer  but  are  dry  in  winter,  are  particularly  suited  to  the  growth 
of  the  sugar-cane.  New  varieties  of  this  plant  have  been  introduced 
by  the  Japanese,  who  also  employ  modem  methods  for  the  extraction 
of  the  sugar.  The  result  is  that  the  production  has  now  greatly . 
increased,  though  for  the  first  few  years  after  the  Japanese  occupa- 
tion it  fell  off  considerably.  At  the  time  of  the  cession  the  average 
export  was  about  29,000  tons  per  year,  but,  during  the  last  three 
years  for  which  statistics  are  available,  it  had  risen  to  over  180,000 
tons.  It  is  the  hope  of  Japan  to  convert  Formosa  into  another 
Java.  Tea  is  grown  in  the  northern  part  of  the  island.  One 
variety,  known  as  "  oolong,"  is  in  considerable  demand  in  the  United 
States,  to  which  much  of  it  is  exported.  The  production  of  carnphof 
is  a  government  monopoly.  Formerly,  the  camphor  tree  grew  all 
over  the  island,  but,  as  a  result  of  reckless  destruction,  it  is  now  found 
only  in  the  mountainous  districts,  where  great  numbers  of  young 
trees  are  being  planted  by  the  Japanese  in  order  to  replace  those 
which  have  been  cut  down  for  the  distillation  of  camphor.  Formosa 
is  the  chief  source  of  the  world's  supply  of  that  commodity.  E^sp 
is  the  staple  food  of  the  people,  and  large  quantities  are  produced 
on  the  western  plains,  whence  there  is  a  considerable  surplus  for 
exportation  to  Japan  proper.  The  miiieral  wejalth  of  the  island 
is  still  largely  ujjknovm,  but  coa\j,nd..g.Qld  are  both  found  and 
worked  to  some  extent. 

The  chief  ports  are  Tamsui  and  Kelung  in  the  north,  and  Takau 
and  Anping  in  the  south-west. 

Communications. — Owing  to  the  mountainous  character  of  the 
country,  the  development  of  means  of  communication  in  Japan 
has  been  slow.  In  feudal  times  the  building  of  good  roads  was 
naturally  not  encouraged,  and,  although  within  recent  years  many 
improvements  have  been  made,  the  condition  of  the  highways  is  still 


290  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

unsatisfactory.  One  reason  for  the  slow  progress  in  this  respect  is 
that  the  attention  of  the  government  has  been  directed  to  the  con- 
struction of  railways,  of  which  there  are  now  over  6,000  miles,  chiefly 
in  Honshiu.  Tokio  is  connected  with  Kyoto  and  Kobe,  and  with 
Shimonoseki  in  the  extreme  west,  by  lines  which  follow  the  coastal 
plains  for  the  greater  part  of  the  way,  and  with  Aomori  in  the  north 
by  two  lines  which  run,  one  to  the  east  and  the  other  to  the  west 
of  the  Central  Highlands.  From  Kyoto  one  railway  goes  north 
and  west  to  Imaichi,  and  another  north-east  to  Niigata.  There 
are  in  addition  several  branches  running  across  the  country  connect- 
ing these  different  systems.  In  the  Hokkaido  a  number  of  lines  have 
been  built  to  develop  its  varied  resources,  and  in  Kiushiu  the 
coal-producing  districts  are  connected  with  the  coast.  In  Formosa 
a  railway  runs  from  Takau  to  Kelung,  along  the  western  plains. 

The  difficulties  of  communication  by  land  and  the  facilities  for 
it  by  sea  have  naturally  encouraged  the  growth  of  a  considerable 
mercantile  marine.  During  the  period  of  Japanese  seclusion,  the 
building  of  ships  capable  of  making  long  sea  voyages  was  pro- 
hibited, and  the  coasting  trade  was  confined  to  small  ships  and  junks. 
Since  the  war  with  China,  however,  rapid  progress  has  been  made, 
and  Japan  had  at  the  end  of  1911  nearly  1,400,000  tons  of  steam 
shipping.  Certain  lines  have  regular  sailings  for  China,  India, 
Europe,  and  North  and  South  America. 

Foreign  Trade. — ^The  foreign  trade  of  Japan  has  made  rgipid 
progress  within  the  last  quarter  of  a  centiuy.  In  1884  the  combined 
value  of  exports  and  imports  amounted  to  about  £6,000,000,  while 
for  the  five  years  1906-10  the  average  value  of  the  exports  was 
£43,500,000,  and  of  the  imports  £46,400,000.  The  chief  imports 
consist  of  food-stuffs,  especially  rice,  soya  beans,  and  sugar,  cotton 
and  woollen  goods,  as  well  as  raw  cotton  and  wool  for  her  own  facto- 
ries, iron  and  steel,  and  machinery  of  various  kinds.  Rice  is  obtained 
from  Indo-China,  Korea,  Siam,  and  Burma  ;  beans  from  Manchuria 
and  Korea  ;  and  sugar  from  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  Textiles  come 
chiefly  from  Great  Britain,  raw  cotton  from  India,  China,  and  the 
United  States,  and  raw  wool  from  Australia  and  the  Argentine. 
Iron  and  steel  goods  and  machinery  are  imported  from  Great 
Britain,  Germany,  Belgium,  and  the  United  States. 

The  exports  include  raw  and  manufactured  silk,  cotton  yarn 
and  clothing,  copper  and  coal,  straw-plait  and  matting,  tea,  sugar, 


JAPAN  291 

and  rice.  The  United  States  and  France  are  the  chief  purchasers 
of  raw  silk,  and,  along  with  Great  Britain,  of  manufactured  silk. 
China  buys  the  bulk  of  the  cotton  yarn  and  cotton  clothing  exported. 
Copper  goes  to  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  and  France,  coal 
to  China,  Hong-Kong,  and  the  Straits  Settlements.  North  America 
is  the  chief  consumer  of  Japanese  teas,  China  and  Korea  of  refined 
sugar,  and  Great  Britain  and  Germany  of  the  better  qualities  of 
rice. 

Ports, — ^The  chief  ports  of  Japan  Proper  are  Yokohama,  Kobe, 
Osaka,  Moji,  and  Nagasaki.  Yokohama,  the  principal  port  of  the 
country,  is  situated  near  the  entrance  to  Tokio  Bay,  and  serves  the 
capital  and  the  populous  region  surrounding  it.  As  it  is  the  great 
market  for  raw  silk,  it  is  also  the  port  through  which  this  commodity 
is  sent  abroad,  and  its  export  trade  is  accordingly  large.  As  an 
importing  centre  it  is  surpassed  by  Kobe,  the  port  through  which 
is  received  much  of  the  raw  cotton  and  other  material  required  for 
the  manufacturing  district  of  which  Osaka  is  the  centre.  Through 
these  two  ports  is  conducted  over  75  per  cent,  of  the  trade  of  Japan. 
Osaka  is  handicapped  by  the  want  of  a  good  harbour  for  large 
ships,  but  carries  on  considerable  trade  with  China  and  Korea. 
Moji  is  the  chief  port  of  Kiushiu,  while  Nagasaki  owes  its 
importance  to  the  coal  found  in  its  neighbourhood. 


19— (1326) 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

THE   MALAY  ARCHIPELAGO 

The  islands  of  the  Malay  Archipelago  are  in  the  possession  of 
European  and  American  powers.  The  Greater  Sunda  Islands 
(Sumatra,  Java,  Bah,  Borneo,  and  others),  Celebes,  the  Moluccas, 
and  the  Lesser  Sunda  Islands  (which  stretch  in  a  long  chain  from 
Lombok  to  Timor)  belong  to  Holland,  with  the  exception  of  the 
north  of  Borneo,  which  is  under  the  protection  of  Britain,  and  the 
eastern  part  of  Timor,  which  is  owned  by  the  Portuguese.  The 
Philippines  were  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  Spain  in  1898. 

The  Dutch  East  Indies 

T^j^,  along  with  Madura,  has  an  area  of  50,554  square  miles. 
The  island  is  mountainous  throughout ;  but  the  soil,  almost  every- 
where derived  from  volcanic  mud,  is  very  fertile.  The  mean 
temperature  is  about  80°  F.,  and  the  mean  annual  rainfall  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  island  is  over  80,  and  in  many  places  over  100 
inches.  The  population  consists  mainly  of  people  belonging  to 
the  Malay  race,  and  is  estimated  to  number  30,000,000,  but  in 
addition  there  are  over  70,000  persons  of  Dutch  extraction,  many 
of  whom,  however,  have  been  born  in  the  East  Indies.  The  control 
exercised  by  the  Dutch  government  at  home,  and  by  its  representa- 
tives in  Java,  has  enabled  that  island  to  become  the  most  pros- 
perous, as  it  is  the  most  densely  populated,  of  all  in  the  eastern  sea. 
Bice^is  the  most  important  crop  of  the  country,  but,  although 
it  is  extensively  grown,  the  supply  is  no  longer  able  to  meet  the 
home  demand,  and  considerable  quantities  have  to  be  imported. 
Other  agricultural  products  are  grown  mainly  on  plantations 
and  are  intended  for  export.  Of  these,  cofte^  formerly  held  the 
leading  place,  but  within  the  last  few  years  the  output  of  the  original 
varieties,  Coffea  Uberica  and  Coffea  arabica,  has  declined  owing  to 
leaf  disease,  and  a  new  variety,  Coffea  robusta,  originally  imported 
from  the  Congo,  has  taken  their  place,  though  in  quality  it  is  some- 
what inferior  to  them.  Tea  has  long  been  grown  in  Java,  but  the 
\    recent  substitution  of  plants  from  India  and  Ceylon  for  Chinese 

292 


THE   MALAY  ARCHIPELAGO  293 

varieties  has  led  to  a  marked  development  of  the  industry,  and  the 
annual  output  now  amounts  to  about  40,000,000  lbs.  The  gardens 
are  mainly  situated  in  the  west  of  the  island,  where  the  rainfall 
throughout  the  year  is  more  regular  than  it  is  elsewhere.  The 
bulk  of  the  product  finds  its  way  to  the  Netherlands  and  to  the 
United  Kingdom.  Cinchona  plantations,  many  of  which  belong 
to  the  government,  have  been  established  in  the  mountain  districts, 
generally  at  a  height  of  over  4,000  feet.  Partly  owing  to  the 
favourable  conditions  under  which  it  is  grown,  and  partly  owing 
to  the  superior  methods  adopted  for  the  improvement  of  the  bark, 
the  Javanese  product  is  gradually  ousting  that  of  Peru  and  Bolivia 
from  the  world's  markets.  The  cultivation  of  sugar  is  the  most 
important  plantation  industry  in  the  centre  and  east  of  Java ;  but 
attention  has  recently  been  given  to  the  production  of  rubber, 
and  a  number  of  plantations  of  Hevea  brasiliensis  have  just  reached 
the  productive  stage.  Other  products  include  coconuts,  grown 
chiefly  on  the  coast,  cacao,  tobacco,  and  pepper. 

The  commerce  of  Java  is  carried  on  mainly  from  the  ports  on  the 
north  coast.  Batavia  is  the  seat  of  the  government,  and  through 
its  new  harbour  at  Tanjong  Priok  passes  most  of  the  trade  of  the 
eastern  part  of  the  island.  Semarang  serves  the  central  districts, 
and  Surabaya  is  an  important  trading  and  manufacturing  town 
in  the  •wist.  All  three  are  connected  with  one  another  by  rail, 
while  an  extensive  system  of  steam  trams  renders  nearly  the  whole 
island  accessible  to  trade. 

Sumatra. — The  island  of  Sumatra  is  of  much  less  importance, 
and,  although  it  has  an  area  of  about  166,000  square  miles,  its  popula- 
tion numbers  only  about  4,000,000.  The  west  of  the  island  is 
mountainous,  while  the  east  is  a  plain ;  but  much  of  the  land  is 
still  covered  with  a  dense  forest  from  which  cam^IiQL  gutta-percha, 
and  gums  are  obtained.  Coffee  has  long  been  grown  on  the  slopes 
of  the  western  mountains,  but  the  principal  districts  engaged 
i6  export  agriculture  lie  along  the  east  coast.  Here,  much  capital 
has  recently  been  invested  in  .^yibto;  plantations,  some  of  which 
are  now  beginning  to  give  a  return.  Other  products  include 
tQbaee«*an4.4i.Qpper.  Gold,  coal,  and  petroleum  are  all  obtained, 
but  in  small  quantities.  The  chief  ports  are  Padang  and  Benkulen 
on  the  west  coast,  and  Palembang  on  the  Moesi  river  in  the  eastern 
plains. 


294  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

The  Moluccas,  Celebes,  Borneo,  Etc. — ^Of  the  other  islands 
mentioned,  the  Moluccas  are  chiefly  noted  for  their  sgi^fi^,  such  as 
cloves,  nutmegs,  cinnamon,  and  pepper.  Celebes  exports  coffee, 
copra,  and  spices  through  Macassar,  its  port  on  the  south-west 
coast.  Bali  is  actively  engaged  in  the  production  of  coffee.  In  Dutch 
Borneo  and  in  the  Lesser  Sunda  Islands,  various  plantation  products 
are  grown,  and  coal,  is  also  found  in  Borneo.  Banka  and  Billiton, 
detached  parts  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  off  which  they  lie,  are  famous 
for  their  Jjjj,  and  produce  about  one-seventh  of  the  world's  supply 
of  that  mineral. 

The  Philippine  Islands 

The  Philippine  Islands,  which  are  believed  to  number  over  1,400, 
have  an  area  of  about  127,000  square  miles.  Luzon,  the  largest, 
covers  41,000  square  miles,  while  Mindanao  is  not  much  smaller.  Of 
the  others,  Cebu,  Negros,  Leyte,  and  Panay  may  be  mentioned. 
Most  of  the  islands  are  mountainous,  and  volcanic  activity  has 
everywhere  been  great.  The  mean  annual  temperature  is  about 
80°  F.,  and  at  Manila  the  range  is  from  77°  F.  in  January  to  84°  F. 
in  May.  "The  mean  precipitation  varies  from  40  to  100  inches,  or 
more,  according  to  position  with  regard  to  the  rain-bearing  winds. 
The  population  is  chiefly_j)f  Malay  stock  and  numbers  about 
8,000,000. 

Over  one-half  of  the  land  is  still  forested,  and  nearly  two-fifths 
of  it  is  covered  with  the  cogon  grass  which  has  grown  up  where  the 
trees  have  been  destroyed  by  fire  in  order  to  effect  clearings.  Only 
about  five  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  is  ever  under  cultivation  at  one 
time.  The  forests  are  believed  to  contain  valuable  building  and 
cabinet  woods  in  addition  to  rubber,  cutch,  and  other  products.  | 
Agriculturehas  hitherto  been  carried  on  by  very  pdiiiitive^4aetliads, 
but  efforts  are  being  made  by  the  Government  to  develop  it.  ,Rice 
is  the  principal  food  crop,  but  it  is  not  grown  in  sufficient  quantities 
to  meet  the  home  demand,  and  large  quantities  have  to  be  imported. 
Owing,  probably,  to  some  reason  connected  with  the  soil,  the  Phihp- 
pines  have  a  monopoly  of  the  cultivation  of  the  plant  (Musa  textilis) 
from  which  Mgnila_hemp^  is  obtained,  and  that  article  accounts  for 
over  one-third  of  the  exports  of  the  archipelago.  At  present  it  is 
grown  in  those  districts  on  the  Pacific  slope  of  the  islands  where  the 
rainfall  is  fairly  evenly  distributed  throughout  the  year,  but  the 


THE   MALAY   ARCHIPELAGO  295 

area  under  cultivation  is  being  extended,  fj^prj^  obtained  from 
the  coconut  palms,  which  grow  everywhere,  but  flourish  best  near 
the  coast,  ranks  second  in  importance  to  hemp.  Within  recent  years 
considerable  attention  has  been  given  to  the  production  of  sugar. 
more  especially  in  the  islands  of  Negros  and  Panay,  and  the  amount 
exported  is  steadily  increasing.  ToJaaCfiQ  is  grown  mainly  in  the 
valley  of  the  Cagayan  river  in  northern  Luzon,  and  cigars  are 
manufactured  at  Manila.  Over  40  per  cent,  of  the  trade  is  now 
with  the  United  States.    Manila  is  the  chief  port. 


I 


AFRICA 


CHAPTER    XXVIII 

AFRICA 

Africa,  which  has  an  estimated  area  of  11,500,000  square  miles, 
is  remarkable  alike  for  the(^ regularity  ol  its  f^oast  line) and  the 
comparative  (simplicity  of  its  topographical  features.)  Its  general 
appearance  is  that  of  a  gj^teau,  the  walls  of  which  rise  in  some 
places  steeply  from  the  sea,  and  in  others  are  separated  from  it 
by  plains  of  no  great  breadth.  To  the  south  of  the  equator  this 
plateau  has  an  average  elevation  of  about  3,000  feet,  but  to  the 
north  it  generally  falls  to  about  1,000  feet,  except  in  certain  regions 
which  may  be  regarded  as  extensions  of  the  southern  plateau. 
The  first  of  these  lies  in  the  east,  where  it  forms  the  highlands  of 
Abyssinia  and  is  continued  northwards  along  the  coast  of  the  Red 
Sea;  the  second  runs  from  south-east  to  north-west  across  the 
centre  of  Africa,  north  of  the  equator,  and  appears  in  the  Darfur 
plateau,  the  Tibesti  hills,  and  the  Tasili  plateau ;  the  third  bends 
round  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  and  gives  rise  to  the  Upper  Guinea 
plateau  and  the  Futa  JaUon  mountains.  Between  the  first  and 
second  of  these  extensions  of  the  southern  plateau  lies  the  lowland 
basin  of  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal,  while  between  the  second  and  third 
lies  that  of  the  Middle  Congo.  The  mountains  which  appear  on  the 
plateau  itself  owe  their  existence,  as  a  rule,  either  to  volcanic  action 
or  to  the  denudation  of  surrounding  land ;  and,  as  they  generally 
occur  near  the  rim,  they  give  to  the  continent  something  of  the 
appearance  of  an  inverted  saucer.  Another  feature  of  importance 
in  the  plateau  region  is  the  continuation  of  that  great  rift  valley 
in  which  the  Jordan,  the  Dead  Sea,  and  the  Red  Sea  all  He.  From 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  Red  Sea  it  makes  its  way  southwards, 
and  is  occupied  by  a  long  line  of  lakes,  of  which  Rudolf  and  Nyasa 
are  the  most  important ;  while  a  western  branch,  which  runs  from 
the  northern  end  of  Nyasa;  contains  Lake  Tangan5dka,  Albert 
Nyanza,  and  Edward  Nyanza.  In  the  north-west  of  Africa  is 
the  Atlas  region,  which  differs  in  many  respects  from  the  remainder 
of^the  continent,  and  belongs  physically  to  the  mountain  system 
of  Europe. 

Climate. — ^The  position  of  Africa  within  the  parallels  of  37°  N. 

299 


300  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

and  35°  S.,  and  the  relative  simplicity  of  its  structural  features, 
render  a  general  description  of  its  climatic  conditions  compara- 
tively simple.  A  large  area,  extending  roughly  from  about  lat.  20°  N. 
to  about  lat.  10°  S.,  excluding  the  Abyssinian  and  East  African 
Highlands,  but  including  the  east  coast  as  far  south  as  the 
Zambesi,  is  hot  at^all  seasons  of  the  year.  Of  the  remainder  of 
the  continent,  the  greater  part  has  hot  summers  and  warm  winters  ; 
but  there  are  notable  exceptions  in  the  Atlas  region  in  the  north, 
and  in  the  High  Veld  in  the  south,  in  both  of  which  the  winters  are 
cool.  Along  the  south-west  coast  there  is  a  comparatively  narrow 
strip  of  land,  which,  owing  to  the  proximity  of  cold  currents,  does 
not  get  hot  in  summer,  but  remains  warm  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year.  The  rainfall  varies  greatly  from  one  region  to  another. 
During  the  northern  summer,  when  the  Sahara  becomes  an  area 
of  low  pressure,  the  equatorial  belt  of  constant  precipitation 
moves  northwards,  and;  in  July,  extends  from  just  south  of  the 
equator  to  a  line  which  runs  from  the  mouth  of  the  Senegal  inland 
to  the  north  of  Timbuktu,  and,  after  curving  round  the  Tibesti 
hills,  goes  by  way  of  Khartum  almost  to  the  Red  Sea.  In  the 
northern  part  of  the  area  covered  by  this  belt,  the  xaii;ifaU..is|a 
summer  one  ;  but  in  the  .south  there  are  t^yo  periods  of  maximum 
precipitation,  one  when  the  sun  is  going  north  and  the  other 
when  it  is  returning  to  the  south.  Monsoonal  influences  make 
themselves  felt  in  two  regions  during  the  northern  summer :  in 
Abyssinia,  where  great  heating  on  the  uplands  draws  in  part 
of  the  monsoon  current  from  the  Indian  Ocean ;  and  on  the  west 
coast,  south  of  the  Senegal,  where  the  trade  winds  of  the  South 
Atlantic  are  pulled  across  the  equator  and  blow  as  south-west 
winds.  In  other  parts  of  Africa  comparatively  little  rain  falls  at 
this  period  of  the  year.  The  Mediterranean  States  lie  under  the 
influence  of  the  tropic  belt  of  high  pressure,  while  the  winds 
drawn  into  the  Sahara  from  that  high  pressure  belt  have  but  Httle 
moisture  to  deposit.  To  the  south  of  the  equator  the  land  mass  is, 
on  the  whole,  a  region  of  high  pressure  and  outflowing  winds  ;  and 
it  is  only  in  the  extreme  south  of  Cape  Colony,  where  westerly  winds 
prevail  during  the  southern  winter,  that  much  precipitation  occurs. 
By  the  month  of  October,  the  conditions  resulting  from  the 
movement  of  the  sun  back  to  the  equator  have  asserted  themselves. 
The  belt  of  equatorial  rainfall  is  practically  confined  within  the 


302  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

parallels  of  ten  degrees  north  and  south  of  the  equator,  and  does 
not  extend  eastward  beyond  the  fortieth  meridian  ;  the  Mediter- 
ranean States  and  Cape  Colony  both  lie  within  the  west-wind 
belts  ;  while  along  the  east  coast,  from  the  Zambesi  southwards, 
the  trade  winds  are  beginning  to  make  their  influence  felt. 

In  January,  when  the  land  mass  south  of  the  equator  is  at  its 
hottest,  the  belt  of  constant  rainfall  does  not  extend  for  more 
than  a  few  degrees  north  of  the  equator,  but,  to  the  south  of  it, 
it  covers  a  great  part  of  the  Congo  basin.  At  the  same  time,  the 
south-east  trade  winds  are  sucked  into  the  land  by  the  low  pressure 
area  which  lies  over  it  ;  and,  as  these  winds  are  moisture-bearing 
(unlike  those  which  blow  over  the  Sahara),  there  is  rainfall  over 
the  greater  part  of  Africa,  south  of  the  equator,  at  this  season  of 
the  year,  the  principal  exceptions  being  the  south-west  coast  and 
part  of  Cape  Colony.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  comparatively 
heavy  precipitation  in  the  Mediterranean  States,  and  even  the 
coast  lands  of  Tripoli  and  Egypt  receive  some  rain. 

The  annual  precipitation  of  Africa  is,  therefore,  distributed 
somewhat  as  follows  :  on  both  sides  of  the  equator,  and  especially 
in  the  basin  of  the  Congo,  on  the  Guinea  coast,  and  in  the  high 
lands  of  Abyssinia,  there  is  a  heavy  rainfall.  To  the  north,  pre 
cipitation  rapidly  diminishes,  and  beyond  the  latitude  of  Khartum 
very  little  moisture  is  received  until  the  Mediterranean  States  are 
reached.  To  the  south  of  the  equator,  conditions  are  somewhat 
different  owing  to  the  influence  of  the  south-east  winds,  and  beyond 
the  twentieth  parallel  the  rainfall  decreases  from  east  to  west. 

Vegetation. — ^The  north- wgst  part  of  Africa,  with  its  winter 
rainfall  and  hot  dry  summers,  is  characterised  by  a  hard-leaved 
evergreen  vegetation,  which  soon  passes,  with  decreasing  precipita 
tion,  into  poor  steppe  and  scrub-land.  These,  in  turn,  give  place 
to  the  deserts  of  the  Sahara  where  vegetation  is  almost  entirely 
wanting,  except  in  the  oases  scattered  here  and  there  over  its  vast 
extent,  and  in  the  lands  which  owe  their  fertility  to  the  waters 
of  the  Nile.  Further  south,  where  there  is  a  light  summer  rainfall, 
a  transitional  belt  of  semi-desert,  in  which  acacia  forests  and 
occasional  grasslands  are  found,  leads  to  the  rich  savanna  lands  of 
the  well- watered  Sudan.  In  Abyssinia,  where  there  is  also  a  summer 
rainfall,  the  vegetation  is  somewhat  different,  and  woodlands, 
grasslands,  and  deserts  all  occur.     In  the  belt  of  heavy  equatorial 


\ 


AFRICA  303 

rainfall  along  the  coasts  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  and  in  the  greater 
part  of  the  Congo  basin,  dense  forests  cover  the  land,  and  a  some- 
what similar  forest  is  found  in  a  gradually  narrowing  strip  along  the 
east  coast  of  the  continent  from  Zanzibar  southwards.  The  savanna 
lands  of  the  Sudan  are  continued  to  the  east  and  south  of  the 
equatorial  forests,  and  extend  over  the  greater  part  of  the  African 
plateau  as  far  south  as  the  twentieth  parallel,  but  beyond  that 
they  are  confined  to  the  eastern  part  of  the  sub-continent.  On 
the  west  and  south  they  pass  into  steppe-land  which  in  turn  gives 
place  to  scrub  (a  strip  of  which  makes  its  way  along  the  west  coast 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Cunene  almost  to  that  of  the  Congo),  and  in 
the  rainless  west  to  desert.  The  region  of  winter  rains  in  the  south- 
west of  the  continent  has  a  vegetation  similar  to  that  of  the 
Mediterranean  States. 

The  Peoples  of  Africa. — Several  great  divisions  of  the  human 
family  are  represented  among  the  peoples  of  Africa.  To  the  north 
of  the  Sudan,  various  branches  of  what  has  been  called  the  Mediter- 
ranean race  form  the  basis  of  the  population.  The  Berbers  in  the 
Mediterranean  States,  the  Egyptians  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile, 
and  the  inhabitants  of  north-east  Africa,  as  far  south  as  Somaliland, 
are  all  connected  with  one  another,  and  pass  under  the  general 
name  of  Hamites,  though  they  have  been  diversely  affected  by 
various  invaders  from  the  neighbouring  continent  of  Asia.  Of 
these,  the  Arabs,  who  are  of  Semitic  origin,  form  a  large  part  of 
the  population  of  the  Mediterranean  States,  and  are  also  found 
in  many  parts  of  the  Sahara,  though  the  Tuaregs,  Uving  within 
the  French  sphere  of  influence,  are  Berbers  who  have  taken  up  a 
nomadic  life.  To  the  south  of  the  Sahara,  Africa  is  populated 
by  various  peoples  of  negro  origin.  The  Sudan  is  the  home  of  the 
true  negro,  but  in  places  there  is  considerable  intermixture,  and  the 
Fulani,  who  are  of  Hamitic  origin,  but  with  a  strong  infusion  of 
negro  blood,  dominate  the  negro  population  in  many  places.  The 
Congo  Forest  is  the  home  of  the  negrilloes,  but  is  also  occupied  by 
other  branches  of  the  black  race.  The  remainder  of  the  negro 
population  of  Africa  consists  of  Bantus,  who  differ  greatly  among 
themselves,  as  they  have  mingled  with  negrilloes  and  Hamites  in 
the  north,  and  with  Hottentots  and  Bushmen  in  the  south.  They 
are  found  in  West  Africa  from  the  Kameruns  to  Angola,  in  the 
highland  regions  of  East  Africa,  and  in  South  Africa  where  they  are 


304  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

represented  by  the  Kaifirs,  Zulus,  Bechuanas,  and  others.  The 
Hottentots  of  south-west  Africa  are  probably  derived  from  an 
intermixture  of  a  Hamitic  stock  and  Bushmen,  the  latter  of 
whom  are  woolly-haired,  yellow-skinned  people,  now  practically 
confined  to  the  Kalahari  region. 


J 


CHAPTER  XXIX 

THE  MEDITERRANEAN   STATES 

The  Mediterranean  States — Morocco,  Algeria,  and  Tunis — 
form  a  region  which  differs  in  many  respects  from  the  remainder 
of  Africa.  Physically,  they  belong  to  the  Atlas  system  of  folded 
mountains  which  traverses  the  whole  region  and  gives  a  certain 
amount  of  unity  to  it.  The  High  Atlas,  which  runs  through 
Morocco  from  the  south-west,  is  continued  to  the  north-east  by  the 
Middle  Atlas,  and  along  the  Mediterranean  coast  by  the  Algerian 
Tell.  In  the  south-west,  the  Anti-Atlas  breaks  off  from  the  main 
range,  while,  further  to  the  north-east,  a  branch  of  the  High  Atlas 
runs  eastwards  as  the  Saharan  Atlas.  Between  the  Middle  Atlas 
and  the  Algerian  Tell  on  the  north-west  and  north,  and  the 
Saharan  Atlas  on  the  south,  Hes  the  Algerian  plateau  or  plateau  of 
the  Shotts  ;  while  to  the  south  of  the  High  Atlas  and  the  Saharan 
Atlas  is  the  Saharan  plateau.  Over  a  great  part  of  this  region  the 
climate  is_. of  the  Mediterranean  type,  the  winters  being  mild  and 
moist  and  the  summers  hot  and  dry  ;  but  local  variations  from  these 
genefaT'conditions  are  frequent,  owing  to  the  irregular  topography 
of  the  country.  Vegetation  is  also  characteristic  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean region,  the  plants  growing  in  winter  and  finding  their 
resting  period  during  the  summer.  South  of  the  Atlas  ranges  both 
climate  and  vegetation  rapidly  approximate  to  the  Saharan  type. 

Morocco 

Morocco  has  an  area  of  about  219,000  square  miles,  and  a 
population  which  has  been  variously  estimated,  but  which  probably 
numbers  about  5,000,000.  The  High  Atlas  and  the  Middle  Atlas 
run  through  the  country  from  south-west  to  north-east ;  while 
in  the  north  another  folded  range,  the  Riff,  follows  the  Mediter- 
ranean coast  from  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  to  Melilla.  Bordering 
the  High  Atlas  on  the  north-west  is  a  tableland,  known  as  the 
Moroccan  Meseta,  which  has  a  height  varying  from  1,600  to 
3,200  feet.  Between  the  Meseta  and  the  Atlantic  lies  a  coastal 
plain,  which  broadens  out  in  the  north  into  the  plain  of  the  Sebu, 
between  the  Riff  and  the  Middle  Atlas.  In  the  east  is  a  small 
part  of  the  plateau  of  the  Shotts,  and  to  the  south  lies  the  Sahara. 

305 


306  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

Climate  varies  greatly  with  position  and  altitude.  On  the 
coastal  plain  the  range  of  temperature  between  summer  and  winter 
is  not  great.  Mogador,  for  example,  has  a  January  mean  of  61°  F. 
and  a  July  mean  of  71°  F.  On  the  Meseta  the  range  is  greater, 
and  Marrakesh  (Morocco  City)  has  a  January  mean  of  51°  F.  and 
a  July  mean  of  80°  F.  In  the  mountains,  snow  lies  in  many  places 
for  a  great  part  of  the  year.  Precipitation  also  varies  ;  on  the 
coastal  plains  and  in  the  plain  of  the  Sebu  from  16  to  20  inches 
of  rain  fall ;  on  the  Atlas  Mountains  and  in  the  Riff  region  the 
amount  is  over  20  inches ;  and  on  the  Meseta  it  is  less  than  16 
inches  and  in  places  less  than  12.  On  the  plateau  of  the  Shotts, 
and  in  the  Sahara,  it  is  generally  low. 

The  Coastal  Plains  are  covered  over  in  many  places  with  a 
fertile  black  soil  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  Russia.  The  region 
is,  therefore,  well  adapted  to  agriculture,  and  contains  the  greater 
part  of  the  cultivated  land  in  the  country.  Barley,  wheat,  and 
maize,  and  various  kinds  of  seeds  are  all  extensively  grown  ;  while 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  towns  irrigation  is  practised,  and  much  fruit 
is  raised.  In  the  plain  of  the  Sebu  st4)ck-raising  is  an  important 
pursuit,  and  large  herds  of  cattle  are  reared.  A  number  of  the 
chief  towns  in  Morocco  are  situated  on  the  coastal  plains,  which 
probably  contain  nearly  one-half  of  the  total  population  of  the 
country.  Fez  stands  on  the  Sebu,  while  on  the  coast  are  the  ports 
of  Laraiche,  Casablanca,  Rabat,  Safi,  and  Mogador.  Agadir. 
is  the  chief  town  of  the  detached  plain  of  Sus,  which  lies  in  the 
angle  between  the  Atlas  and  the  Anti-Atlas.  There  are  few 
manufactures. 

The  Meseta  has  a  rainfall  too  low  for  successful  cultivation,  and 
is  devoted  chiefly  to  pastgraL^JUisaiits^  large  numbers  of  cattle, 
goats,  and  sheep  being  raised  upon  it.  Along  the  foot  of  the 
adjoining  mountains  is  a  belt  of  country  which  can  be  irrigatec 
by  mountain  streams ;  and  on  the  edge  of  this  belt  stands 
Marrakesh,  the  capital  and  chief  market  of  Southern  Morocco, 
It  is  the  centre  of  a  rich  fruit-growing  district,  which,  it  is  belie ved^ 
could  be  greatly  extended  by  the  development  of  irrigation. 

Other  Regions. — Of  the  other  regions  of  Morocco  it  is  unneces-i 
sary  to  say  much.  Many  parts  of  the  Atlas  ranges  are  forested  j 
the  olive,  the  cork -oak,  and  the  cedar  are  among  the  most 
important  trees  on  the  lower  slopes  ;  while,  on  the  upper,  mixec 


THE   MEDITERRANEAN    STATES  307 

deciduous  and  coniferous  forests  grow  where  climatic  conditions 
are  favourable.  There  is  little  agriculture  except  in  the  valleys, 
and  the  population  is  scanty.  The  Riff  is  one  of  the  least  known 
parts  of  Morocco,  but  it  is  believed  that  conditions  generally  are 
somewhat  similar  to  those  which  prevail  on  the  Atlas.  The 
Sahara  is  habitable  only  in  the  oases,  such  as  Tafilet,  where  the 
water  from  mountain  streams  can  be  used  for  purposes  of 
irrigation  before  it  is  lost  in  the  desert. 

Communications  and  Trade. — Morocco  is  everywhere  capable 
of  great  development.  The  methods  of  agriculture  at  present 
employed  are  of  the  most  primitive  description,  and  in  many 
districts  no  attention  is  paid  to  the  possibilities  of  irrigation,  while 
practically  nothing  has  been  done  to  exploit  the  mineral  wealth 
of  the  country.  There  are  no  railways  and  few  roads,  and  goods 
have  to  be  carried  from  one  place  to  another  by  mules  or  camels. 
The  chief  exports  are  barley,  eggs,  almonds,  skins,  oxen,  and 
wool ;  while  the  imports  include  cotton  goods,  sugar,  tea,  machinery, 
and  flour.  The  bulk  of  the  exports  go  to  the  United  Kingdom, 
France,  and  Spain ;  while  the  imports  come  from  France  and  the 
United  Kingdom. 

Algeria 

The  French  colony  of  Algeria  extends  along  the  Mediterranean 
coast  for  a  distance  of  about  650  miles.  Its  area  is  estimated  at 
about  343,000  square  miles,  and  its  population  at  5,000,000. 

Three  distinct  physical  regions  may  be  recognised.  The 
Tell  includes  the  whole  country  from  the  crest  of  the 
mountains  down  to  the  coast ;  the  high  plateau  of  the  Shotts  lies 
between  the  Algerian  Tell  and  the  Saharan  Atlas ;  the  south 
belongs  to  the  Sahara.  Chmatic  conditions  vary  greatly  from  one. 
region  to  another.  Algiers,  on  the  coast,  has  a  mean  temperature 
for  January  of  54°  F.  and  for  August  of  78°  F. ;  for  Tebessa,  on  the 
plateau,  the  figures  are  44°  F.  for  January  and  79*5®  F  for  July 
(the  warmest  month)  ;  while  for  Biskra,  in  the  Sahara,  they  are 
approximately  52°  F.  for  January  and  90°  F.  for  July.  Rainfall 
decreases  from  east  to  west  and  from  north  to  south.  On  the 
slopes  of  the  Tell  it  varies  from  about  20  inches  in  the  west  to  40 
in  the  east,  the  high  plateaus  have  from  15  to  30  inches,  and  the 
Sahara  less  than  10  inches. 

The  Tell  may  be  subdivided  into  three  parallel  belts.    The 


308  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

first  consists  of  the  coastal  districts  and  the  lower  slopes  of  the 
hills  by  which  they  are  bordered,  the  second  of  plains  Hke  the 
Mitidja  and  the  valleys  of  such  rivers  as  the  Cheliff,  and  the  third 
of  the  slopes  of  the  higher  hills.     Throughout  the  whole  region 
irjigation. is  necessary  to  ensure  the  growth  of  summer  crops  ;   on 
the  coastal  belt  it  is  carried  on  by  somewhat  primitive  methods, 
but  in  the  inland  plains  and  valleys  (where  the  larger  rivers  can 
be  utilised)  it  is  practised  on  a  more  extensive  scale.     In  the  first 
of  these  regions,  the  alluvial  soils  at  the  mouths  of  rivers  have  been 
converted  into    vegetable  gardens ;  while  vines  and  fruit  trees, 
such  as  the  orange,  the  lemon,  and  the  almond,  grow  on  thei 
neighbouring  slopes.    The  larger  valleys   and  plains  of  the  interi 
are  chiefly  devoted  to  the  growth  of  cereals,  and  great  quantiti 
of  wheat  and  barley  are  annually  produced.     Where  irrigation 
available,  forage  plants  are  also  grown  during  the  summer  months. 
In  the  mountainous  belt,   the   district   known   as   the    Kabylia, 
to  the  east  of  Algiers,  is  the  best  developed,  and  various  fruits 
are  grown  in  the  lower  valleys,  while  cereals  and  vegetables  are 
cultivated  in  the  upper.     At  still  greater  altitudes  there  is  good 
pasturage  for  sheep  and  goats.     The  whole  of  the  Tell  region 
contains  considerable  areas  of  forest  land.     From  sea-level  to  an 
altitude  of  about  2,500  feet,  the  principal  trees  are  the  olive,  the 
cork -oak,  and  the  Aleppo  pine ;   but  higher  up,  there  are  various 
varieties  of  oak  and  cedar.     On  saline  soils,  in  the  larger  valleys 
near  the  coast,  the  eucalyptus  tree  has  been  extensively  planted 
within  recent  years.    The  chief  products  of  the  forests  are  cork, 
tan  bark,  and  fuel. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  has  so  far  been  located  mainly 
in  the  TeU  region.  Large  quantities  of  iron  ore  are  obtained  from 
open  mines  at  Beni-Saf  in  Oran,  and  Zaccar  in  Algiers.  Zinc  and 
lead  are  also  worked  in  various  places. 

~  TThe  High  Plateaus. — Here,  irrigation  is  only  practicable  to  a 
slight  extent,  and  the  greater  part  of  the  region  is  a  steppe  land, 
on  which  large  numbers  of  sheep  and  goats  are  pastured  during; 
the  summer  months  by  Arabs,  who  drive  them  up  from  the: 
Sahara  where  they  have  wintered.  Alfa  grass  is  the  prevaihng 
type  of  vegetation,  and  one  variety  (Stipa  tenacissima),  which 
covers  considerable  areas,  is  collected  and  exported  for  thej 
manufacture  of  paper. 


THE  MEDITERRANEAN   STATES  309 

The  Sahara. — ^In  the  Sahara,  settlement  is  only  possible  in  the 
oases  which  have,  since  the  advent  of  the  French,  been  greatly 
increased  both  in  extent  and  in  number  by  the  sinking  of  artesian 
wells.  The  date  palm  is  the  chief  tree  of  the  oasis,  and  provides 
not  only  the  staple  food  of  its  population,  but  an  important  article 
of  export,  while  in  its  shade,  fruits,  vegetables,  and  cereals  can  be 
grown  to  supply  local  needs. 

Communications,  Trade,  Etc. — Since  they  conquered  Algeria, 
the  French  have  made  great  efforts  to  develop  its  resources ;  and 
they  have  so  far  succeeded,  that,  in  almost  all  respects,  the  colony 
is  greatly  in  advance  of  the  neighbouring  country  of  Morocco. 
Over  2,000  miles  of  railway  have  been  constructed,  the  main  line 
running  from  Oran  by  way  of  Algiers  and  Constantine  to  Tunis, 
with  branches  to  Bougie,  Philippeville,  and  Bona,  the  ports  of 
Algeria  on  the  Mediterranean,  and  to  the  oases  of  Colomb-Becharand 
Biskra  in  the  Sahara.  The  external  trade  of  the  country  is  con- 
ducted very  largely  with  France.  The  principal  exports  are  wine 
(which  is  by  far  the  most  important),  wheat,  sheep,  minerals, 
and  barley  ;  while  the  imports  consist  mainly  of  manufactured 
goods,  such  as  textiles  and  clothing,  matches,  machinery,  and 
furniture.  The  chief  exports  to  the  United  Kingdom  are  alfa 
grass  and  iron  ore,  and  the  chief  imports  coal  and  machinery, 
but  the  total  trade  is  small. 

Tunis 

Tunis,  which  is  a  French  protectorate,  and  has  an  area  of  about 
50,000  square  miles,  forms  the  most  easterly  section  of  the  Atlas 
region,  but  in  some  respects  its  physical  features  differ  from  those 
of  Algeria.  The  Tell  region  may  be  considered  as  including  not 
only  the  northern  slopes  of  the  mountains  down  to  the  sea,  but  the 
valley  of  the  Majerda  to  the  south  as  well ;  the  high  plateaus  are 
more  contracted  and  irregular  than  they  are  further  to  the  west ; 
and  in  the  Saharan  region  there  are  a  number  of  dried-up  salt  lakes, 
some  of  which  are  below  sea-level.  On  the  whole,  climatic  con- 
ditions are  similar  to  those  which  prevail  in  Algeria,  though  in  the 
Sahel  (the  east  coast  region)  the  rainfall  is  lower.  In  the  main,  the 
country  is  agricultural.  On  the  Tell,  and  especially  in  the  valley 
of  the  Majerda,  wheat  and  vines  are  extensively  cultivated,  and 
the  cork-oak  and  the  olive  flourish  ;   barley  is  grown  in  the  drier 

20 — {1326) 


310  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

lands  of  the  Sahel ;  on  the  steppe-lands  of  the  plateau  sheep  and 
goats  are  grazed,  and  alfa  is  collected ;  in  the  Saharan  region  the 
Djerid  group  of  oases  produce  some  of  the  finest  dates  grown. 
Minerals,  the  principal  of  which  are  zinc  and  iron  ores  and 
phosphates,  are  obtained,  the  two  former  in  the  hills  of  the  north- 
west, and  the  latter  on  the  borders  of  the  Sahara.  The  manu- 
facture of  carpets  is  carried  on  in  some  of  the  towns,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  Tunis,  Sfax,  Bizerta,  and  Gabes.  The 
principal  exports  are  phosphates,  olive  oil,  hides,  cattle,  and 
mineral  ores  (iron,  zinc,  and  lead)  ;  while  the  imports  consist 
mainly  of  iron  and  steel  goods,  cotton  fabrics,  and  food-stuffs. 
The  bulk  of  the  trade  is  transacted  with  France,  but  Italy,  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  Algeria  also  share  in  it. 

Tripoli 

Tripoli,  which  occupies  that  part  of  the  Mediterranean  coast 
between  Tunis  and  Egypt,  falls  into  several  distinct  physical 
regions.  Along  the  coast  from  the  Tunisian  frontier  to  the  Gulf 
of  Sidra  there  lies  a  low  plain  of  varying  width,  known  as  the 
Jefara.  This  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  several  mountain  ranges, 
beyond  which  extends  the  rocky  plateau  of  Hamada-el-Homra, 
which  separates  Tripoli  proper  from  the  oases  of  Fezzan.  To  the 
east  of  the  Gulf  of  Sidra  is  the  elevated  tableland  of  Cyrenaica. 
The  climate  of  the  northern  part  of  Tripoli  is  transitional  between 
the  Mediterranean  and  the  Saharan  types.  Sufficient  rain  to  per- 
mit of  cultivation  falls  on  a  narrow  coast  strip  of  the  Jefara,  on 
the  mountain  slopes,  and  in  parts  of  Cyrenaica ;  and  in  these  dis- 
tricts Mediterranean  products  are  grown.  But,  over  the  greater 
part  of  the  Jefara,  scanty  pasturage  for  camels  alone  is  available, 
and  much  of  Cyrenaica  is  devoted  to  cattle-raising.  Alfa  is  col- 
lected in  the  mountain  districts,  and  date  palms  are  grown  in  the 
oases  of  Fezzan.  Tripoli  was  at  one  time  extensively  engaged  in 
the  trans-Saharan  trade,  but  with  the  opening  up  of  West  Africa 
by  European  nations  this  has  greatly  declined  in  importance. 
TripoH  was  ceded  to  Italy  in  1912. 


CHAPTER  XXX 

THE   BASIN   OF  THE   NILE 

Throughout  a  great  part  of  its  course,  (the  Nile  plays  an 
important  part  in  the  economic  development  of  the  countries 
through  which  it  passes  J  and  hence  it  is  necessary  to  know  some- 
thing of  the  regime  of  ahat  river  and  its  tributaries.  It  rises  on 
the  Lake  Plateau  of  Equatorial  Africa,  where  the  Kagera  and 
various  other  streams  flow  into  Victoria  Nyanza.  The  Victoria 
Nile  from  Victoria  Nyanza,  and  the  SemUki  from  Lake  Edward, 
both  descend  rapidly  from  the  plateau  to  Lake  Albert  in  the  western 
branch  of  the  rift  valley,  and  the  river  which  leaves  Lake  Albert — 
the  Bahr-el-Jebel — also  has  a  swift  descent  into  the  plains  of 
the  Sudan.  From  the  Nile-Congo  watershed,  on  the  south-west 
of  these  plains,  comes  a  number  of  streams,  the  majority  of  which 
eventually  unite  to  form  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal,  which  flows  into  thcf 
Bahr-el-Jebel,  the  combined  river  taking  the  name  of  the  White 
Nile.  A  short  distance  below  the  confluence  of  these  rivers,  the 
Sobat  flows  into  the  White  Nile,  which  is  also  joined  at  Khartum 
by  the  Blue  Nile,  and  near  Berber  by  the  Atbara,  all  three  rivers 
flowing  from  the  Abyssinian  plateau. 

From  the  point  at  which  it  enters  the  Sudan  plains  to  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Blue  Nile  at  Khartum,  a  distance  of  over  1,000 
miles,  the  fall  of  the  Nile  is  very  gentle,  and  only  averages  about  two 
inches  to  the  mile.  Below  Khartum,  however,  the  river  passes 
through  a  series  of  cataracts  before  it  enters  the  Nile  Valley  at 
Assuan,  where  its  course  again  becomes  gentle.  In  this  valley, 
which  owes  its  origin  to  a  fracture  in  the  earth's  crust,  the  Nile  has, 
by  the  deposition  of  silt,  built  up  a  plain  which  has  a  length  of  about 
600  miles  and  a  breadth  varying  from  5  to  10  miles.  The  delta  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  has  likewise  been  built  up  of  silt. 

On  the  equatorial  plateau  there  is  a  jiouble  rainy  seaspn,  anc 
the  discharge  from  Victoria  Nyanza  is  fairly  constant  through- 
out the  year.  Further  north,  on  the  slope  of  the  plateau  and  in 
the  basin  of  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal,  there  is  a  heavy  summer  rainfall, 
which  leads  to  much  flooding  in  the  southern  plains  of  the  Sudan, 
but  does  not  aflect  the  height  of  the  river  below  Lake  No.     The 

311 


312  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

basin  of  the  Sobat  has  also  a  summer  rainfall,  but  its  effect  is  not 
felt  in  the  valley  of  the  White  Nile  until  December.  The  Blue 
Nile  and  the  Atbara  are,  therefore,  the  factors  of  most  importance 
in  determining  the  rise  and  faU  of  the  waters  of  the  Nile  as  far, 
at  least,  as  the  lower  part  of  its  course  is  concerned.  On  the 
Abyssinian  plateau,  whence  these  two  rivers  flow,  there  is  a 
heavy^  monsoonalrainfall^  between  the  middle  of  May  and  the 
middle  of  SeptemberT  Both  rivers  come  down  in  flood,  the  Blue 
Nile  reaching  its  maximum  about  the  beginning  of  September,  and 
the  Atbara  about  the  third  week  in  August,  with  the  result  that  the 
maximum  height  of  the  Nile  at  Wady  Haifa  is  also  reached  about  the 
beginning  of  September.  But  to  this,  it  ought  to  be  noted,  the 
White  Nile  contributes  but  little,  as,  when  the  Blue  Nile  is  in  high 
flood,  the  waters  of  the  White  Nile  are  ponded  back  and  do  not 
begin  to  run  off  until  the  later  months  of  the  year,  when  the  former 
river  has  fallen  very  considerably.  Below  its  confluence  with  the 
Atbara,  the  Nile  receives  no  regular  stream,  but  only  the  results 
of  occasional  showers  on  the  hills  between  it  and  the  Red  Sea. 
Consequently,  in  its  progress  through  Egypt  it  loses  in  volume  as 
a  result  of  evaporation,  seepage,  and  the  withdrawal  of  water  for 
irrigation  purposes.  At  Wady  Haifa,  where  the  Nile  enters  Egypt, 
the  regime  of  the  river  is  somewhat  as  follows :  it  is  at  its  lowest 
about  the  middle  of  June,  when  it  begins  to  rise  rapidly  and 
continues  to  do  so  until  the  beginning  of  September,  throughout 
which  it  remains  very  high.  During  October  and  November  it 
quickly  loses  volume  as  a  result  of  the  fall  of  the  Blue  Nile  and 
Atbara  ;  and,  after  the  waters  of  the  White  Nile  have  been  drained 
off  in  November  and  December,  the  river  faUs  steadily  until  the 
following  June.  At  Cairo  the  maximum  occurs  about  a  month 
later  than  at  Wady  Haifa.  During  the  flood  period  the  Blue  Nile 
and  the  Atbara  bring  down  large  quantities  of  volcanic  matter 
from  the  Abyssinian  plateau,  and  it  is  this  silt  that  has  built 
up  the  plain  and  delta  of  the  Nile  which  constitute  modern  Egypt, 
the  rate  of  deposition  being  -10  of  a  metre  per  century.  Concerning 
the  fertilising  quaUties  of  the  silt  there  are  some  differences  of 
opinion. 

Egypt 
Egypt  may  be  divided  into  three  regions — ^the  valley  of  the 
Nile,  its  delta,  and  the  surrounding  deserts.     The  delta  hasa 


THE   BASIN   OF  THE   NILE  313 


G^yyAiu 


^Meditega^i^atLiainfall.  but  it  is  only  slight,  and  diminishes  rapidly  ^ 
inland ;  and,  while  Alexandria  has  a  mean  annual  precipitation 
of  8 -53  inches,  Cairo  has  one  of  1  "35  inches  only.  Without^igation,  . 
therefore,  cultivation  in  the  NilevaUev  would  be  impossibleT^The 
mean  temperature  at  Alexandria  forjanuary  is  58°  F.  and  for 
August  80°  F.  ;  at  Cairo  the  figures  are  54°  F.  for  January  and 
83-5°  F.  for  July;   and  at  Assuan,  62°  F.  for  January  and  92°  F.  for 

July. 

The  Valley  and  Delta  of  the  Nile. — The  system  of  irrigation 
which  for  long  prevailed  in  Egypt  was  that  known  as  bgsin  irrigation.  (I) 
The  banks  of  the  Nile  were  strengthened  by  artificial  embankments 
called  berms,  and  by  means  of  transverse  walls  the  whole  valley 
was  divided  into  a  number  of  basins.  In  this  way  the  flood  was 
regulated,  but  the  only  crops  which  could  be  grown  were  flood 
crops,  sown  immediately  after  the  waters  had  withdrawn  from  the 
land,  and  winter  crops,  sown  after  the  flood  crops  had  been 
harvested.  For  the  growth  of  summer  crops,  such  as  cotton  or 
sugar-cane,  perennial^  irrigation  was  necessary,  and  that  was  only/^ 
possible  in  the  immediate  vicmity  of  the  Nile,  where,  by  primitive^"^"^ 
apparatus,  a  certain  amount  of  water  could  be  withdrawn  from  the 
river  at  low  water  and  distributed  over  the  land.  Perennial  irriga- 
tion on  a  large  scale  was  first  begun  in  1820,  when  a  barrage  was 
constructed  below  Cairo,  and  a  number  of  deep  canals  were  made 
in  the  delta ;  but  it  was  confined  to  that  region,  where,  indeed, 
it  was  only  partially  successful,  until  the  British  occupation  of  the 
country.  The  barrage  was  then  put  in  a  state  of  repair,  and,  in  order 
that  there  might  be  a  sufficient  supply  of  water  during  the  summer 
months  when  the  river  was  low,  a  large  dam  was  constructed  ^ 
at  Assuan,  where  the  bed  of  the  river  contracts  just  below  a  wide 
expansion.  When  the  Nile  began  to  fall  after  its  annual  flood, 
the  gates  of  this  barrage  were  closed  and  the  water  ponded  up  to  a 
depth  of  75  feet,  so  that  a  lake  about  60  miles  long  was  formed. 
This  water  was  allowed  to  escape  during  the  spring  and  early 
summer,  when  it  could  be  utilised  for  the  cultivation  of  summer 
crops.  At  Assiut  a  regulating  barrage  was  built  for  the  better 
distribution  of  the  water  ponded  up  at  Assuan,  and  the  Nile  valley 
below  this  second  barrage  was  then  brought  under  perennial  irriga- 
tion. South  of  Assiut,  however,  flood  irrigation  alone  was  possible, 
and,  in  order  to  increase  the  perennially  irrigated  area,  the  Assuan 


314 


ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 


dam    has    been    raised    and    another    regulating    dam    built    at 
Esneh. 

The  climatic  conditions  of  Egypt  are  such  that,  witliJJie-ai4£l_^ 
jrrigation.  the  land  can  be  cultivated  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 
The  summer  crops,  which  require  to  be  watered  regularly  during 
the  whole  period  of  their  growth,  arecotton  and  sugar-cane  ;  rice 
and  maize  are  Nile  crops,  and  are  sown  aFthe  time  of  high  Nile  ; 
fEe  winter  crops,  sown  later  in  the  year,  include  wheat,  barley,  clover, 
and  beans.  Of  these  various  crops,  cotton  now  covers  the  largest 
area ;  but,  although  with  the  development  of  irrigation  that  area 
is  steadily  increasing,  the  yield  per  feddan  shows,  on  the  whole, 
a  no  less  steady  decrease,  as  the  following  figures  indicate  : — 


Years. 

Average  cotton 
growing  area 
(in  feddans). 

Average  total 
crop  (in  qantars). 

Average  yield 
per  feddan. 

1896-7  to  1900-1 
1901-2  to  1905-6 
1906-7  to  1910-11 

1,136,800 
1,377,200 
1,590,200 

5,991,400 
6,198,200 
6,692,000 

5-27 
4-51 
4-20 

1  feddan  =  1038  acres.  1  qantar  =  99049  lbs. 
At  the  same  time,  it  is  generally  agreed  that  the  quality  of  the 
cotton  produced  is  much  inferior  to  what  it  once  was,  and  this 
decline,  both  in  the  yield  and  the  quality  of  the  staple  crop  of  the 
country,  is  one  of  the  most  serious  of  the  difficulties  which  con- 
front the  rulers  of  Egypt  at  the  present  time.  To  explain  it,  a 
number  of  causes  have  been  suggested,  and  it  is  probable  that  all 
contribute  to  a  greater  or  less  extent.  The  fellah,  long  accus- 
tomed to  regard  water  as  the  one  thing  necessary  for  successful 
cultivation,  has  not  yet  learned  that  he  may  have  too  much  of  it, 
and  regularly  over-waters  his  land  when  he  has  a  chance  ;  it  is 
also  possible  that  seepage  from  the  irrigation  canals  is  raising  the 
level  of  the  water  table  and  that  the  drainage  system  will  require 
to  be  radically  altered.  Again,  with  the  change  from  basin  to 
perennial  irrigation,  the  fertilising  mud  of  the  Nile  is  no  longer 
distributed  over  the  land  to  the  same  extent  as  before,  and  it  may 
be  that  Lower  Egypt,  at  least,  is  beginning  to  suffer  from  the  want 
of  it.  The  high  price  of  cotton  within  recent  years,  moreover, 
has  led  to  the  substitution  of  a  two  years'  for  a  three  years'  rotation 
of  crops  over  large  areas,  and  it  has  also  led  to  the  cultivation  of 
cotton  on  inferior  lands.     The  ignorance  of  the  native  cultivator 


THE   BASIN   OF  THE   NILE  315 

has  caused,  it  is  suspected,  a  considerable  deterioration  in  the 
quality  of  the  seed  wldch  is  used,  while  the  growth  of  insect  pests 
as  a  result  of  the  destruction  of  bird  life  is  said  to  have  been 
considerable. 

Caiia-sug^s  chiefly  cultivated  in  Upper  Egypt  along  the  course 
of  the  Ibrahimieh  canal,  which  leaves  the  Nile  at  Assiut  and 
waters  a  considerable  tract  of  country  on  the  west  bank  of  that 
river.  Maize  covers  an  area  nearly  as  great  as  that  under  cotton, 
the  larger  part  of  the  crop  being  grown  in  Lower  Egypt,  which  also 
produces  the  bulk  of  the  rice  raised  in  the  country.  Wheat  tends 
to  be  about  equally  divided  between  Upper  and  Lower  Egypt,  but 
barley  is  more  extensively  cultivated  in  the  former  district  than 
in  the  latter. 

The  great  majority  of  the  11,000,000  inhabitants  are  engaged  in 
agriculture,  and  only  in  a  few  places  are  there  any  manufactures 
of  importance.  Alexandria  and  Damietta  extract  oil  from  cotton 
seed,  and  in  several  towns  of  the  delta  cotton  is  ginned. 

The  Deserts. — In  the  desert  regions  there  is  little  economic  *- 
activity  except  in  the  oases  where  the  typical  products  of  such  places 
are  grown.  More  important  is  the  discovery  of  _petroleum  along^  ^ 
the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea.  In  the  promontory  of  Jemsa,  which  is 
situated  near  tlie  southern  extremity  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  a  produc- 
tive oil  field  has  been  located,  and  arrangements  have  been  made 
for  its  exploitation.  Phosphates  are  worked  at  Safaga,  further 
to  the  south. 

Communications  and  Trade. — ^The  Nile  is  now  navigable 
throughout  Egypt  since  a  canal  has  been  constructed  to  avoid  the 
rapids  and  barrage  at  Assuan.  The  principal  railway  runs  from 
Alexandria  southwards  as  far  as  Assuan,  but  there  is  a  break  of 
gauge  at  Luxor.  From  Cairo,  Hues  run  to  Damietta,  and,  by  way 
of  Benha,  Zagazig,  and  IsmaiHa,  to  Port  Said  and  Suez.  A^he  Suez  . 
Canal  ^ives  greatstrategic  importance  to  Egypt  though  it  hardly  L 
affects  its  trade!^    "     '  "'" 

Cotton  is  the  chief  export  of  the  country,  and  during  the  years 
1906-10  it  accounted  for  over  80  per  cent,  of  the  total  value  of  the 
exports.  \Cotton  seed,  cereals,  and  vegetables  together  made  up 
the  greater  part  of  the  remainder.  ^  Cotton  and  woollen  goods, 
building  wood,  iron  and  steel,  machii3!ery,  and  coal  are  the  principal 
imports. 


316  economic  geography 

The  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan 

^y/  The^Sudan,  which  is  under  th^jQint^^control  of  Great  Britain 

^^Jid__Eg^^,^  has   an   area   of  about  1,0007000  square  miles. '^  Its 

population,  >which  is  now  about  3,000,000,  at  one  time  numbered 

9,000,000,  but  was  reduced  during  the  Dervish  tyranny  to  less 

than  2,000,000. 

The  climate  varies  greatly  from  one  region  to  another.  Except 
along  the  Red  Sea  littoral  south  of  Suakin,  rain  seldom  falls  north 
of  the  17th  parallel,  but  south  of  it  there  is  a  gradual  increase 
both  towards  the  equator  and  towards  the  Abyssinian  mountains. 
Over  a  great  part  of  the  basin  of  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal,  and  of  the 
country  between  the  Bahr-el-Jebel  and  the  Sobat,  there  is  a  mean 
annual  rainfall  of  from  30  to  40  inches  ;  while  in  the  extreme  south, 
where  there  is  a  double  rainy  season,  the  amount  received  is  still 
greater.  The  mean  temperature  is  generally  high.  Such  observa- 
tions as  have^yet  been  made  seem  to  indicate  That  at  Berber  it 
varies  from  67°  F.  in  January  to  94°  F.  in  June  ;  at  Khartum  from 
69°  F.  in  January  to  92°  F.  in  May  and  June  ;  and  at  Mongalla 
from  77°  F.  in  July  to  82°  F.  in  March. 

The  natural  regions  of  the  country  may  most  conveniently  be 
studied  by  observing  the  relation  of  vegetation  to  rainfall.  To 
the  north  of  the  17th  parallel,  desert  conditions  prevail  except 
along  the  banks  of  the  Nile,  where  there  is  a  riverine  population 
engaged  in  agriculture :  in  a  few  oases  scattered  here  and  there ; 
and  in  the  districts  south  of  Suakin,  where  cultivation  is  possible 
in  some  of  the  wadis  and  on  irrigated  land,  such  as  that  at  Tokar 
on  which  cotton  is  grown. 

South  of  the  rainless  area  there  lies  a  belt  of  country  which,  as 
regards  its  vegetation,  is  transitional  between  the  desert  to  the 
north  and  the  true  savanna  to  the  south.  The  northern  parts  con- 
sist, in  the  main,  of  poor  scrub-land,  but  further;  south_there  are 
fnrf;<;tt;_nf  npficifl  rmd  large  areas  of  grassland^^on  which  in  years  of 
good  rainfall  a  considerable  amount  of  agriculture  is  possible. 
Dhurra  (a  kind  of  millet),  beans,  lentils,  melons,  and  onions,  as  well 
as  some  wheat  and  barley,  are  all  grown  ;  and  in  many  places,  as 
in  the  south  of  Darfur  and  in  the  Gezira  (the  country  between  the 
White  and  the  Blue  Nile),  there  is  good  grazing  for  cattle  and  sheep. 
In   the   forests   of   "  hashab "    {Acacia   verek),   in   the   south   of 


7 


/ 


THE   BASIN   OF  THE   NILE  317 

Kordofan,  gum,  one  of  the  most  important  exports  of  the  Sudan, 
is  found  in  large  quantities,  and  some  ivory  and  ostrich  feathers 
are  also  obtained  from  that  province.  [Along  the  banks  of  the 
White  Nile  and  the  Blue  Nile,  agriculture  is  more  profitable  and 
the  population  is  denser)  but  the  further  development  of  the  land 
in  the  neighbourhood  of^ these  two  rivers  depends  upon  the  extent 
to  which  they  may  ultimately  be  used  for  purposes  of  irrigation. 
At  the  present  time,  the  quantity  of  water  which  maybe  withdrawn 
from  them  is,  in  the  interest  of  Egypt,  strictly  limited,  but  it  is 
believed  that,  owing  to  the  muchjijgher  saqnter  temperature  which 
OTevails  in  the  Sudan,  certain  crops  can  be  grown  there  during 
mat  part  ofthe  year  in  which  Egypt  does  not  demand  water. 
Investigations  in  this  direction  are  at  present  being  made  in  the 
Gezira,  which  forms  a  vast  alluvial  plain,  somewhat  more  fertile 
in  the  east  where  it  has  been  built  up  by  the  deposits  of  the  Blue 
Nile.  It  is  generally  covered  with  grass  and  scrub,  and  is  occupied 
by  semi-nomadic  peoples,  who  cultivate  considerable  areas  during 
the  rains,  but  move  with  their  herds  towards  the  rivers  during  the 
dry  season.  At  Tayibai,  on  the  Blue  Nile,  experiments  made  in 
the  cultivation  of  cotton  have  given  very  satisfactory  results, 
and  it  is  proposed  to  construct  an  irrigation  canal  which,  leaving 
the  Blue  Nile  at  Sennar,  will  run  in  the  direction  of  Khartum,  and 
enable  a  considerable  area  to  be  cultivated  with  cotton  and  wheat. 
Other  schemes  under  consideration  for  the  development  of  irriga- 
tion in  the  Gezira  and  Kordofan  involve  the  re-modeUing  and 
embanking  of  the  Bahr-el-Jebel,  and  the  construction  of  a  reservoir 
at  Khartum  to  bring  wide  tracts  of  country  in  Kordofan  under 
flood  irrigation.  But  progress  in  these  directions  must,  necessarily, 
be  slow. 

In  the  southern  Sudan,  where  there  is  a  rainfall  of  over  30  inches, 
the  vegetation  assumes  aTricher  andinor£_varied  form.     The  forests 


contam  rubber-producing  plants,  such  as  LandoipEia  owariensis, 
and  valuable  timbers,  such  as  African  mahogany ;  while  on  the 
extensive  grasslands  a  good  deal  of  cultivation  is  carried  on  by 
native  tribes.  Ivory,  rubber,  and  some  iron  worked  by  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  province,  constitute  the  chief  exports 
of  the  region. 

Communications  and  Trade. — ^The  principal  railway  is  that 
which  crosses  the  Nubian  Desert  from  Wady  Haifa  to  Abu  Hamed 


/ 


318  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

and  then  follows  the  Nile  to  Khartum.  From  it  there  breaks  off 
near  Berber,  a  branch  for  Suakin  and  Port  Sudan  on  the  Red 
Sea.  Another  line  runs  from  Khartum  up  the  Blue  Nile  to 
Sennar,  crosses  over  to  Goz  Abu  Guma  on  the  White  Nile,  and 
goes  on  to  El  Obeid  in  Kordofan.  The  Nile  below  Khartum  i^ 
navigable  except  at  the  cataracts ;  above  Khartum,  it  is  navig 
able  as  far  as  Gondokoro  in  Uganda.  /The  principal  exports 
the  Sudan  are  ivwy,  cattle  and  sheep,  rubber,  and  cotton  ;  whili 
the  imports  include  cotton  goods  and  machinery. 

Uganda 

The  Protectorate  of  Uganda,  which  has  an  area  of  118,00< 
square  miles,  rises  from  the  plains  of  the  Bahr-el-Jebel  in  th< 
Sudan  on  to  the  plateau  of  East  Africa,  where  it  occupies  mos 
of  the  northern  part  of  the  region  lying  between  the  eastern  an< 
western  rift  valleys.  Except  in  the  north,  where  it  slopes  down 
towards  the  Sudan,  and  in  the  east,  where  it  rises  to  the  highe; 
plateaus  bordering  the  Eritrean  rift,  the  average  elevation  of  th 
land  is  about  4,000  feet,  and  much  of  it  consists  of  rolling  countr 
in  which  numberless  rounded  hills  are  separated  from  one  anothe 
by  broad  and  swampy  rivers. 

Notwithstanding  its  position  on  the  equator,  the  high  altitudi 
of  Uganda  gives  it  a  more  moderate  climate  than  might  have  beei 
expected.  Entebbe,  which  is  situated  on  Victoria  Nyanzi 
at  a  height  of  3,906  feet  above  sea-level,  has  a  mean  annua 
temperature  of  72°  F.,  with  a  range  of  less  than  2°  betweei 
June  (the  coldest)  and  January  (the  hottest  month).  The  rain 
fa^^ja^^46b-£a;£iirs^at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  J;^t  is  heaviest  in 
^spring_and  autumn  mmiths.  is  between  40  and  SOTmcEes,  excep 
in  the  nortlT-east,  wh'ereit  is  less  than  30,  and  in  the  south-west 
where  it  is  over  60  inches.  The  natural  vegetatioa  of  the  country 
consists  of  scattered  forests,  grasslands,  and  thorn  bush ;  whii^ 
the  food  crops-ei-the  native  population  include  bananas,  swee 
potatoes,  maize,  and  millet.  \Cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  are  als( 
reared,  i  \ 

Considerable  attention  has  recently  been  given  to  the  cultiva 
tion  of  cotton,  the  exports  of  which,  though  relatively  small,  an 
increasing  rapidly ;  and  attempts  are  also  being  made  to  grov 
rubber,  sisal,  coffee,  cacao,  and  rice.     Among  other  exports  an 


THE    BASIN   OF  THE   NILE  319 

wild  rubber  and  ivory.  Most  of  the  trade  passes  over  the  Uganda 
railway  and  through  Mombasa.  The  oaly  line  within  the  country 
itself  is  that  which  is  being  constructed  from  Jinja  on 
Victoria  Nyanza  to  Kakindu,  where  it  will  tap  the  cotton-growing 
district  round  Lake  Kioga. 

The  native  population,  which  numbers  about  3,500,000,  has 
recently  suffered  severely  from  sleeping  sickness.  Concerning  the 
suitability  of  the  high  plateaus  in  the  east  for  white  settlement 
but  little  is  as  yet  known. 

Abyssinia 

Abyssinia  belongs  in  part  to  the  Abyssinian  Highlands,  where 
the  Archaean  rocks  of  the  African  plateau  are  covered  in  many 
places  with  great  masses  of  volcanic  material,  and  in  part  to  the 
lowlands  which  lie  to  the  east  of  the  Eritrean  rift-valley.  The 
total  area  of  the  country  is  estimated  at  432,000  square  miles, 
and  its  population,  which  is  partly  of  Semitic  origin,  numbers 
5,000,000.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  country  is  as  yet 
but  partially  known,  three  natural  regions  may  be  recognised. 
The  KwoUa,  which  rises  to  a  height  of  5,000  feet  above  sea-level,  has 
a  tropical  climate  and  yields  cotton,  coffee,  and  other  products  of  a 
tropical  or  sub-tropical  character.  The  Woina  Dega,  which  hes, 
roughly  speaking,  between  5,000  and  8,000  feet,  produces  cereals 
and  fruits  like  those  of  Southern  Europe.  The  Dega,  which  is 
above  8,000  feet,  is  a  pastoral  country  in  which  sheep  and  goats  are 
reared.  Economic  progress  is  almost  at  a  standstill  and  the  country 
has  but  httle  trade  with  the  outside  world.  The  chief  exports  are^ 
hides,  coffee,  ivory,  beeswax,  and  gum.  whileJJigJgiports  consist, 
in  the  main,  of  cotton  goods  ;  but  the  total  amount  is  small.  Most 
of  the  trade  passes  over  the  railway  from  Dire  Dawa  to  Jibuti  in 
French  Somahland,  but  some  makes  its  way  by  river  steamers  on 
the  Sobat  to  Omdurman.  The  railway  is  being  continued  from 
Dire  Dawa  to  Addis  Abbeba. 


CHAPTER  XXXI 

EAST  AFRICA 

Eritrea  and  Somaliland,  British  East  Africa,  and  German  East 
Africa,  may  all  be  considered  as  belonging  to  East  Africa,  though, 
they  do  not  form  parts  of  a  single  geographical  unit. 

Eritrea 

Eritrea,  which  lies  along  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea  between  the 
parallels  of  12°  N.  and  18°  N.,  is  an  Italian  protectorate.  It  is  of 
little  economic  importance,  as,  owing  to  the  small  rainfall,  it  is 
little  better  than  desert.  The  inhabitants;  who  are  nomadic,  are 
engaged  in  pastoral  pursuits.  Massowa,  built  on  a  small  coral 
island,  is  now  connected  with  the  mainland,  and  from  it  a  railway 
line  runs  inland  to  Asmara. 

Somaliland  I 

The  Somali  coast  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  interior  is  divided 
among  Britain,  France,  and  Italy,  while  the  remainder  of  the 
horn  of  Africa  belongs  to  Abyssinia.  Throughout  the  whole  region 
little  rain  falls,  and  most  of  the  country  is  covered  with  scrub.  The 
inhabitants  are,  to  a  large  extent,  nomadic,  and  wander  about 
with  their  herds  of  camels,  horses,  and  sheep,  though,  in  the  more 
favoured  parts  of  the  interior,  maize,  dhurra,  and  other  cereals  are 
all  grown.  In  French  territory  the  only  place  of  importance  is 
Jibuti,  the  chief  port  of  Abyssinia.  British  Somaliland  exports 
myrrh,  gum,  coffee,  hides,  and  live-stock,  mainly  from  the  ports  of 
Berbera,  Bulbar,  and  Zeyla.  In  Italian  Somaliland  the  chief  ports 
are  Barawa  and  Mogadishu. 

British  East  Africa 

The  physical  features  of  British  East  Africa  present  some  striking 
contrasts.  Along  the  coast  there  is  a  plain  which,  at  Mombasa 
in  the  south,  has  a  width  of  only  two  miles,  but  broadens  out,  in  the^ 
neighbourhood  of  the  Juba  river  in  the  north,  to  over  a  hundred 
miles.     From  the  plain  a  steep  ascent  leads  to  the  Nyika,   as  this 

320 


EAST   AFRICA  321 

part  of  the  African  plateau  is  called.  Still  further  west,  the  land 
continues  to  rise  to  the  highlands  of  the  volcanic  region,  beyond 
which  Hes  part  of  the  Eritrean  rift  valley.  On  the  other  side  of 
the  valley,  the  mountains  fall  away  to  Victoria  Nyanza, 
which  is  at  a  height  of  3,726  feet  above  sea-level. 

Over  the  greater  part  of  the  country,  altitude  is  an  important 
factor  in  determining  climatic  conditions.  At  Mombasa  (lat.  4°4'  S.) 
the  mean  temperature  varies  from  78-5°  F.  in  July  to  83°  F.  in 
April;  while  at  Machakos  (lat.  l°3rN.),  which  is  at  an  elevation 
of  5,400  feet,  it  ranges  from  61°  F.  in  July  to  68°  F.  in 
February.  At  Port  Florence,  on  Victoria  Nyanza,  the  temperature 
is  nearly  as  high  as  on  the  coast.  Rainfall  also  varies  greatly 
from  one  place  to  another.  On  the  coast,  over  a  large  part  of 
the  highland  area  north  of  Nairobi,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Victoria 
Nyanza,  there  is  a  mean  precipitation  of  over  40  inches.  The 
remainder  of  the  country  has  in  the  south  from  30  to  40  inches, 
and  in  the  north  from  20  to  30  inches  or  even  less.  There  is  a 
double  rainfall  period :  on  the  coast,  the  heavier  rains  fall  from 
April  to  June,  and  the  lighter  from  October  to  December ;  in  the 
highlands,  the  earher  rains  last  from  March  till  the  end  of  May,  and 
the  later  from  October  till  the  end  of  December. 

Vegetation. — Parts  of  the  coast  and  much  of  the  Nyika  have 
but  a  scanty  vegetation  ;  there  is  little  grass,  and  the  surface  of 
the  land  is  often  either  bare  or  covered  with  acacia  bush.  The 
Highland  region  is  a  savanna,  in  which  there  is  rich  grass  land, 
interspersed  with  forests  according  to  local  variations  in  soil  and 
climate.     The  rift  valley  is  mainly  grass  land. 

General  Conditions. — From  the  point  of  view  of  economic 
development,  British  East  Africa  presents  some  features  of  excep- 
tional interest.  Although  the  whole  country  lies  between  the 
parallels  of  5°  N.  and  5°  S.,  there  are  considerable  areas  which,  on 
account  of  their  high  altitude,  are  well-adapted  to  European  settle- 
ment. On  the  other  hand,  it  is  probable  that  Europeans  will 
never  themselves  be  able  to  perform  all  the  work  involved  in  the 
cultivation  of  the  land,  and  that  they  will  always  be  compelled  to 
rely  upon  native  assistance.  But  the  natives,  of  whom  it  is  esti- 
mated there  are  over  4,000,000,  have  a  considerable  source  of 
wealth  in  their  herds,  and  only  a  limited  need  for  money ;  and  it 
often   happens   that  there   is   a  scarcity  of  labour  just  at  those 


322  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

seasons  when  it  is  most  in  demand.  At  present,  the  European 
population,  almost  entirely  of  British  origin,  numbers  over  3,000, 
and  it  is  unlikely  that  there  will  be  a  rapid  increase  in  the  near 
future. 

The  coastal  region  and  the  highlands  alone  require  further 
consideration  here.  Much  of  the  Nyika  is  of  little  value,  and  a 
great  part  of  Jubaland  in  the  north  is  as  yet  only  partially 
explored. 

The  Coastal  Regions  are  not  suitable  for  permanent  European 
settlement,  and  very  little  has  as  yet  been  done  for  their  develop- 
ment. The  coconut  palm  grows  both  upon  the  coastal  plain  and 
upon  the  slopes  of  the  plateau  facing  the  sea,  and  copra  and  coco- 
nuts are  exported.  Rubber  has  been  planted  in  places,  and 
is  said  to  promise  well.  Attempts  have  been  made  to  cultivate 
cotton,  but  there  are  few  places  in  the  Protectorate  where  it  will 
grow  without  irrigation,  and  not  until  lately  have  funds  for  that 
purpose  been  available. 

The  Highlands  are  capable  of  producing  a  great  variety  o! 
crops,  but  it  is  as  yet  uncertain  which  will  prove  best  adapted  t 
their  environment,  and  at  the  same  time  best  able  to  stand  th 
heavy  cost  of  transport  to  the  coast.  Sisal-hemp  and  wattle  ar 
both  grown,  but  the  cultivation  of  the  latter  is  handicapped  bj 
the  want  of  a  market  for  the  timber  after  the  bark  has  bee: 
removed.  Coffee  does  well  in  those  districts,  which  have  a  ricl 
soil,  and  have  either  sufficient  rainfall  or  are  capable  of  irrigation, 
Maize  and  wheat  are  cultivated  over  considerable  areas,  bul 
maize  is  rather  expensive  to  export,  while  most  varieties  of  wheal 
are  subject  to  rust.  Cattle,  sheep,  horses,  ostriches,  and  pigs  ar 
all  raised  in  considerable  numbers. 

Communications  and  Trade. — ^The  Uganda  Railway,  whid 
runs  from  Mombasa  to  Port  Florence,  is  the  chief  means  of  com- 
munication in  the  Protectorate.  From  Mombasa  it  ascends,  ofter 
by  steep  gradients,  to  a  height  of  nearly  8,000  feet  on  the  eastern 
escarpment  of  the  rift  valley.  After  descending  about  2,000  feet 
into  the  valley,  it  rises  again  to  over  8,000  feet  on  the  westem 
escarpment,  from  which  there  is  a  rapid  descent  to  Port 
Florence.  The  principal  exports  are  copra,  grain,  hides  and  skins 
ivory  and  rubber ;  while  the  imports  consist  of  cotton  goods 
provisions,  and  agricultural  implements. 


east  africa  323 

German  East  Africa 

German  East  Africa  has  an  area  of  384,000  square  miles.  Its 
population  is  estimated  at  10,000,000,  of  whom  about  2,000  are 
Europeans. 

The  ph5^ical  geography  of  the  country  is  briefly  as  follows : 
The  600  miles  of  coast  are  bordered  by  a  hot,  moist,  and  frequently 
unhealthy  lowland  of  varying  breadth,  beyond  which  lie  various 
mountain  ranges,  of  which  the  Usambara  and  the  Usagara  are  the 
most  important.  The  coastal  plain  and  the  mountain  slopes 
which  face  the  sea  have  a  mean  annual  rainfall  of  at  least  30, 
and  in  places  of  over  60  inches.  Beyond  the  mountains,  but 
at  a  lower  elevation,  lies  a  plateau  with  a  height  of  3,500  to  4,000 
feet  above  sea-level.  The  rainfall  on  this  plateau,  sheltered  by 
the  mountains,  is  naturally  low ;  in  the  east  it  probably  does 
not  exceed  30  inches,  but  it  increases  in  the  west  as  the  land  rises 
towards  the  hills  which  border  the  plains  round  Lake  Tanganyika. 

The  coastal  plain,  and  the  seaward  slopes  of  the  mountains 
which  border  it,  are  generally  forested,  but,  further  inland,  the 
vegetation  is  of  the  savanna  type,  and  in  the  regions  of  low  rain- 
fall tends  to  pass  into  semi-desert.  There  are,  therefore,  two 
fertile  areas — an  eastern  and  a  western — separated  by  a  wide 
stretch  of  sparsely  populated  country.  German  authorities  have 
estimated  that  not  much  more  than  one-fifteenth  of  the  whole 
region  is  capable  of  development. 

Agriculture  is  mainly  in  the  hands  of  the  natives,  but  European 
plantations  have  been  established  in  some  of  the  healthier  eastern 
districts,  the  more  favoured  localities  being  round  Mochi  (at  the 
foot  of  the  Kilimanjaro  and  Mem  mountains),  and  on  the  slopes 
of  the  Usambara  and  Usagara.  On  these  plantations,  coffee, 
wattle,  tobacco,  cotton,  and  tea  are  cultivated ;  while,  nearer  the 
coast,  sisal-hemp  and  rubber  are  grown  on  an  extensive  scale. 
The  native  crops  include  cotton,  rice,  sesame,  and  coconuts 
in  the  eastern  districts,  and  coffee,  ground-nuts,  cotton,  and  palm-oil 
in  the  western.  Wax,  rubber,  and  copal  are  collected  in  various 
places.  The  eastern  and  western  districts  have  not  yet  been 
brought  into  communication  with  one  another,  and  at  present,  there 
are  only  two  railway  Hues  in  the  country.  One  runs  from  Tanga, 
by  Mombo,  to  the  plantations' on  the  Usambara,  and  has  recently 
been  connected   with   those   round    Mochi:   the   other  starts  at 


324  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

Dar-es-Salaam,  and  has  been  carried  to  Tabora,  so  that  it  has 
opened  up,  not  only  the  plantations  on  the  Usagara,  but  a  cattle- 
raising  region  on  the  plateau  behind.  Many  of  the  exports  of  the 
western  districts  leave  the  country  by  way  of  the  ports  on 
Victoria  Nyanza  and  the  Uganda  railway. 

The  Zanzibar  Protectorate 

The  islands  of  Zanzibar  and  Pemba,  which  he  off  the  coast  of 
German  East  Africa,  are  under  British  control.  A  large  trade, 
carried  on  mainly  by  Indians,  passes  through  the  port  of  Zanzibar. 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

SOUTH   AFRICA 

Africa,  south  of  the  Zambesi,  has  an  average  elevation  of  about 
3,500  feet,  but  there  are  three  well-marked  plateau  regions  which 
lie  between  4,000  and  6,000  feet  above  sea-level.  The  first  of  these 
is  to  the  north  and  west  of  the  Molopo-Orange  valley,  and  is  some- 
times called  the  Damanama  plateau ;  the  second  is  the  High 
Veld  which  extends  almost  from  the  south-west  corner  of  the 
continent  to  the  Limpopo  ;  and  the  third  is  the  Matabili-Mashona 
plateau  between  the  Limpopo  and  the  Zambesi.  The  Damanama 
plateau  belongs  to  German  South-west  Africa ;  the  High  Veld,  with 
part  of  the  lower  land  on  the  north-west  and  the  coastal  plains  on 
the  south  and  east,  is  divided  among  the  provinces  which  make  up 
the  Union  of  South  Africa ;  while  the  Matabili-Mashona  plateau 
constitutes  Southern  Rhodesia. 

The  Union  of  South  Africa 

The  Union  of  South  Africa  includes  the  four  provinces  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Natal,  the  Orange  Free  State,  and  the  Transvaal. 
Except  in  Natal,  much  of  the  country  suffers  from  want  of  sufficient 
moisture,  and  is,  as  a  result,  more  suitable  for  pastoral  than  for 
arable  farming.  Attempts  to  remedy  this  defect  by  the  develop- 
ment of  irrigation  have  been  made,  but,  though  local  supplies  of 
water  have  in  many  cases  been  successfully  utilised,  it  is  doubtful 
whether  any  schemes  on  a  more  extensive  scale  are  feasible.  The 
lwig_droughts  and  occasional  heavy  downfalls  have  also  affected 
the  character  of  the  soil,  which  has  in  many  places  been  washed 
away  owing  to  the  absence  of  a  continuous  covering  of  vegetation, 
with  the  result  that  considerable  areas  are  becoming  less,  rather  than 
more,  fertile.  The  economic  development  of  the  whole  region,  too, 
has  been  hindered  by  the  existence,  often  in  the  more  fertile  districts, 
of  a  large  native  population;  and  by  the  poUtical  differences 
which  for  so  long  separated  the  Briton  and  the  Boer.  The  discovery 
of  great  stores  of  mineral  wealth,  which,  for  a  time,  accentuated 
these  differences,  has,  however,  done  much  within  recent  years  for 
economic  progress  in  the  country. 

325 

21— (1326) 


326  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 


The  Cape  of  Good  Hope 


s/ 


The  low  coastal  plain  on  the  extreme  south  of  the  African  continent 
is  bordered  on  the  north  by  the  Langebergen  and  other  folded 
ranges,  which  lead  up  to  the  plateau  of  the  Little  Karroo.  To  the 
north  of  the  Little  Karroo,  another  series  of  folded  ranges,  of  which 
the  most  important  are  the  Zwartebergen,  mark  the  ascent  to  the 
higher  and  broader  Great  Karroo.  Beyond  the  Great  Karroo,  the 
Stormberg,  the  Nieuwveld,  and  the  Roggeveld  form  the  escarp- 
ment of  the  High  Veld,  which  gradually  falls  away  towards  the 
Orange  River. 

The  distribution  of  precipitation  presents  some  features  of 
special  interest.  In  the  south-west  of  the  province,  from  Clan- 
william  on  the  west  coast  to  Port  Elizabeth  on  the  south,  the 
greater  part  of  the  rainfall  occurs  during  the  winter  half  of  the 
year ;  but  the  amount  is  limited,  and  only  over  a  comparatively 
small  area  does  it  exceed  20  inches.  The  remainder  of  the  country, 
on  the  other  hand,  receives  most  of  its  moisture  from  the  south-east 
trade  winds  during  the  summer  months ;  but  there  is  a  steady 
decrease  in  amount  from  east  to  west,  and,  while  the  eastern  part  of 
the  province  has  a  mean  precipitation  of  over  20,  and  in  places  of 
over  30  inches,  there  is  a  large  area  in  the  west  which  has  less 
than  10  inches. 

Natural  Regions. — ^The  south-east  and  the  soutlr^est  coastal 
regions  are  marked  off  from  the  regions  which  adjoin  them  by  more 
equable  temperature  and  greater  precipitation  ;  and  from  one 
another  by  the  seasonal  distribution  of  their  rainfall.  The  eastern 
slopes  of  the  High  Veld  are  covered  with  grass,  and  may  therefore 
be  considered  apart  from  the  western,  which  have  a  vegetation 
somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  Karroo,  along  with  which  they 
may  be  treated.  The  north-west  of  the  province  is  one  in  which 
little  economic  activity  appears  to  be  possible  except  in  Griqualand 
West  which  has  great  mineral  wealth. 

The  South- West  Region  has  mild,  moist  winters  and  hot,  dry 
;ummers.  At  Table  Bay  the  mean  monthly  temperature  ranges 
'from  54°  F.  in  July  to  69°  F.  in  January.  Cereals  and  fruit 
are  both  extensively  grown,  though  for  the  latter,  at  least,  irriga- 
tion is  often  necessary.  Wheat  and  barley,  the  principal  cereals 
cultivated,  find  a  more  favourable  environment  here  than  in  any 


SOUTH   AFRICA  327 

other  part  of  the  province.  The  fruits  include  grapes,  oranges, 
lemons,  and  apples.  From  the  grapes,  Hght  wines  and  Cognac 
brandy  are  both  manufactured,  but  the  export  trade  in  these  articles 
has  met  with  varying  fortune.  For  the  other  fruits  mentioned,  a 
market  appears  to  be  growing  up  in  the  United  Kingdom,  where 
they  appear  in  the  early  part  of  the  year. 

The  South-East  Region,  with  its  summer  rainfall  and  some- 
what higher  temperatiu-e,  is  more  suitable  for  the  cultivation  of 
maize  than  of  wheat,  and  some  of  the  chief  maize-growing  districts 
in  the  province  lie  within  it.  Kaffir  corn  is  also  extensively  grown, 
and  other  crops  include  oathay,  tobacco,  and  fruit.  Sheep  and 
cattle  are  reared  in  large  numbers  throughout  the  region.  There 
are  considerable  areas  of  fertile  soil,  of  which  the  best  use  is  not 
always  made,  as  much  of  the  land  in  the  Transkei  territories  is  in 
the  hands  of  natives,  whose  standard  of  cultivation  is  not  high. 

The  Karroo. — On  ^J^  ]^prr-^^  +u^  rrdnfall  is  meagre,  while  the 
hgat  of  summer  is  often  great,  uraaf  Reinet,  for  example,  has 
a  mean  mon^iy  temperature  'ranging  from  56°  F.  in  June  to 
74°  F.  in  February.  The  region  js,  in^the  main,  a  pastoral  one; 
but,  as  the  vegetation  chiefly  consists  of  dwarfed"shl'llb5,  tfiecs^Ty- 
ing  capacity  of  the  land  is  low,  though,  where  irrigation  is  possible, 
matters  are  somewhat  better.  On  the  Little  Karroo,  where  lucerne 
can  be  grown  to  feed  the  young  chicks,  large  numbers  of  ^striches 
are  reared.  This  industry,  which  is  carried  on  in  many  places, 
but  notably  round  Oudtshoorn,  has  assumed  considerable  impor- 
tance within  recent  years,  and  the  export  of  ostrich  feathers  has 
quadrupled  in  value  since  1890.  Laxge^^[imntitiea-JiLto^^^  are 
also  grown  in  irrigated  districts  on  the  Little  Karroo,  but  elsewhere 
stock-raising  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the  farmer.  Cattle  were 
formerly  reared  for  transport,  but,  with  the  development  of  the 
railway  system,  they  are  now  less  required  for  that  purpose,  and 
more  attention  is  being  paid  to  dairying.  Sheep  and  goats  are 
both  raised  for  the  sake  of  their  fieeceT^ 

The  North-East  Region  lies  upon  the  High  Veld ;  and,  if  it 
has  a  lower  temperature  than  the  Karroo,  it  has  a  better  rainfall. 
The  land  is  grass-covered,  and  many  good  grazing  districts  are  to 
be  found.  The  products  generally  are  similar  to  those  of  the 
Karroo,  with  the  exception  of  ostriches  and  tobacco,  for  which, 
as  a  general  rule,  the  climate  is  unfavourable. 


328  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

The  North- West  Region  is  economically  of  little  importance, 
and  is  but  sparsely  occupied.  Where  underground  water  can  be 
brought  to  the  surface  the  land  is  cultivated,  but  elsewhere  only  a 
limited  amount  of  pastoral  farming  is  possible.  Towards  the  west, 
desert  conditions  prevail.  One  of  the  chief  products  of  the  region 
is  copper  obtained  from  the  Ookiep  mines,  and  exported  from 
Port  Nolloth. 

Griqualand  West. — ^The  diamond  mines  of  this  region,  to 
which  it  mainly  owes  its  importance,  consist  of  "  pipes "  of 
breccia,  which  penetrate  the  stratified  rock  of  the  country,  and 
are  probably  due  to  volcanic  action,  though  the  precise  way  in 
which  they  have  been  formed  has  not  yet  been  determined. 
Those  mines  which  are  worked  at  present  are  all  situated  in  the 
vicinity  of  Kimberley ;  and  their  annual  output,  which  is  carefully 
limited  by  the  De  Beers  Company,  now  amounts  to  over  £4,000,000. 

Natal 

From  the  heights  of  the  Drakensberg  which,  in  Natal,  form  the 
escarpment  of  the  High  Veld,  the  land  descends  in  a  series  of 
deeply  incised  terraces  to  the  coastal  plain  which  borders  the 
Indian  Ocean.  Climatic  conditions,  which  are  mainly  determined 
by  altitude,  afford  the  best  basis  for  the  division  of  the  country 
into  natiu-al  regions.  The  coastal  plain,  which  has  a  breadth  of 
10  to  15  miles,  and  rises  from  sea-level  inland  to  a  height  of  about 
1,000  feet,  is  a  sub-tropical  region.  Durban,  on  the  coast,  has  a 
mean  annual  temperature  of  71°  F.,  with  a  range  from  64°  F. 
in  August  to  77°  F.  in  January.  The  Midlands,  which  extend  up 
the  mountain  slopes  to  an  altitude  between  4,000  and  5,000  feet 
above  sea-level,  are  more  temperate  in  character.  Pietermaritz- 
burg  (2,225  feet),  for  example,  has  a  mean  annual  temperature  of 
65-5°  F.,  and  a  range  from  57°  F.  in  July  to  73-5°  F.  in  January. 
On  the  Highlands,  which  occupy  the  remainder  of  the  country, 
the  temperature  is  still  lower.  Precipitation  appears  to  be 
heaviest  along  the  coast,  which  has  a  mean  annual  rainfall  of  just 
"over  4U  inches  ;  the  Midlands  generally  have  between  25  and 
35  inches ;  and  in  the  Highlands  the  amount  is  probably 
somewhat  greater. 

The  Coastal  Plain  contains  some  regions  of  great  fertility. 
Sugar  is  extensively  grown  on  a  narrow  belt  of  country  which  does 


SOUTH    AFRICA  329 

not  extend  inland  for  a  greater  distance  than  5  or  6  miles.  The 
amount  produced  now  averages  about  80,000  tons,  which  is  some- 
what less  than  the  total  amount  consumed  in  South  Africa. 
Owing  to  the  irregularity  and  unsatisfactory  nature  of  Kaffir 
labour,  Indian  coolies  have  been  introduced  into  the  country,  and 
now  perform  most  of  the  work  connected  with  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  sugar-cane.  Further  inland  tea  is  grown,  as  in  Natal 
it  thrives  best  on  lands  between  500  and  1,000  feet  above  sea- 
level  and  from  6  to  12  miles  distant  from  the  coast.  The  demand 
for  the  product  is  almost  entirely  a  South  African  one,  and  as  much 
as  2,000,000  lbs.  have  been  produced  in  a  single  year.  The  cultiva- 
tion of  wattle,  which  was  formerly  confined  to  the  Midlands,  is  now 
being  extended  to  the  coastal  plain,  apparently  with  favourable 
results.  Fruits,  such  as  bananas,  pineapples,  oranges,  and  lemons, 
cereals,  such  as  maize  and  Kaffir  corn,  and  arrowroot,  are  all 
extensively  cultivated. 

^  The  Midlands  are  mainly  devoted  to  agricultural  pursuits. 
Arable^jaunijag  is  widespread,  and  the  growing  of  wattle  trees 
is  an  important  industry  which  now  attracts  considerable  attention. 
The  bark  is  exported  to  Germany,  while  the  timber  is  in 
demand  for  use  as  pit-props  in  the  mines  atJLohanri^ghTTr^;^^  Other 
agricultural  productsinclude  maize,  wool,  and  fruit.  There  are 
extensive  coalfields  in  the  country  between  Dundee  and  Newcastle, 
and  from  the  mines  in  the  vicinity  of  these  towns  nearly  2,000,000 
tons  per  year  are  produced.  Various  other  minerals  are  also  known 
to  exist. 

The  Highlands  are  more  suitable  for  pastoral  than  for  arable 
purposes,  and  considerable  numbers  of  cattle  and  sheep  are  raised. 
Many  of  the  Boer  farmers  from  the  Transvaal  bring  their  flocks 
and  herds  to  this  region  during  the  winter  months,  when  food  is 
scarce  upon  the  High  Veld.  From  the  forested  area,  which  is 
extensive,  are  obtained  such  timbers  as  chestnut,  ironwood,  and 
sneeze-wood. 

The  Orange  Free  State 

Practically  the  whole  of  the  Orange  Free  State  belongs  to  the 
High  Veld,  and,  owing  to  its  great  altitude,  possesses  a  ^temperate, 
climate.^   At  Bloemfontein,  which  is  4,518  feet  above"sea-ievel^ 
the  mean  annual  temperature  is  62°  F.     June,  the  coldest  month. 


330  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

has  a  mean  of  48°  F.,  and  December,  the  hottest,  one  of  73®  F. 
The  rainfall  diminishes  from  the  east,  where  it  is  probably  between 
25  and  35  inches,  towards  the  west,  where  it  is  less  than  20  inches  ; 
and  the  grassland  of  the  former  region  gives  place  to  the  Karroo 
bush  of  the  latter.  Though  the  country  is  mainly  a  pastoral  one, 
the  fertile  alluvial  soils  and  heavier  rainfall  in  the  valleys  of  the 
east  have  led  to  the  cultivation  of  wheat  on  a  considerable  scale ; 
and  about  two-thirds  of  the  wheat  grown  in  the  province  comes 
from  the  basin  of  the  Caledon  River,  which  has  been  called  the 
"  Granary  of  South  Africa."  In  the  east  and  north-east,  maize 
is  grown  ;  but  both  districts  frequently  suffer  from  drought,  hail- 
storms, and  locusts.  Cattle  are  raised  principally  in  the  regions 
already  mentioned,  but  sheep  and  goats  are  more  widely  distri- 
buted, and  thrive  on  the  Karroo  bush  of  the  south-west.  The 
western  section  of  the  province  is  more  arid  than  any  other,  and 
little  water  seems  to  exist  except  in  brackish  pans.  Irrigation 
and  dry  farming  have  been  attempted  in  various  places  through- 
out the  country,  but  neither  appears  as  yet  to  have  made  much 
progress. 

Coal  is  worked  at  Vereeniging  in  the  north,  and  diamonds  at 
Jagersfontein,  Koffyfontein,  and  elsewhere. 

The  Transvaal 

The  Transvaal  is  generally  divided  into  three  physical  regions : 
the  plateau  or  high  veld,  the  banken,  or  slopes,  which  lead  up  to  the 
high  veld,  and  the  bush  veld.  The  plateau,  which  includes  most 
of  the  land  with  an  elevation  over  4,000  feet,  is  estimated  to  include 
one-third  of  the  whole  country  and  lies  mainly  in  the  south,  though 
there  are  outlying  areas  in  the  Waterbury  and  Zoutpansberg 
districts.  To  the  north  and  east  of  the  main  parts  of  the  plateau, 
and  around  the  outlying  districts,  are  the  banken  or  slopes,  which 
generally  lie  between  3,000  and  4,000  feet  above  sea-level,  though 
in  places  they  rise  to  a  somewhat  greater  height ;  they  cover 
about  one-fourth  of  the  area  of  the  province.  The  bush  veld,  or 
low  veld,  occupies  the  north  of  the  Transvaal,  with  the  exception 
of  the  outlying  parts  of  the  plateau  already  mentioned ;  a  strip 
of  it  also  extends  along  the  eastern  border  to  the  frontier  of  Natal. 
The  bush  veld  altogether  covers  about  two-fifths  of  the  total  area 
of  the  country. 


SOUTH  AFRICA  331 

The  High  Veld. — Lines  drawn  from  Pitsani,  on  the  main  rail- 
way line  some  little  distance  north  of  Mafeking,  to  Johannesburg, 
from  Johannesburg  to  Pilgrim's  Rest,  about  thirty  miles  north- 
east of  Lydenburg,  and  from  Pilgrim's  Rest  to  a  point  on  the 
Natal  frontier  to  the  east  of  Wakkerstroom,  mark  off  the  greater 
part  of  the  High  Veld  from  the  remainder  of  the  country.  But  a 
distinction  is  frequently  made  between  the  region  to  the  east  of 
Johannesburg  and  that  to  the  west.  The  former — ^the  High  Veld 
proper,  as  it  is  called — ^has  an  elevation  of  over  5,000  feet,  and 
consists  in  the  main  of  rolling  downs  ;  while  the  latter,  which  is 
known  as  the  Middle  Veld,  and  usually  lies  between  4,000  and 
5,000  feet  above  sea-level,  is  more  irregular  in  appearance  and  is 
frequently  broken  by  long  lines  of  low  hills. 

Over  the  whole  of  the  High  Veld  the  summers  are^hot,  but  in 
winter  the  thermometer  frequently  falls  considerably  below  freezing 
point.  Johannesburg,  which  has  an  altitude  of  5,735  feet,  has  a 
mean  annual  temperature  of  61°  F.,  with  a  range  from  47°  F.  in 
July  to  70°  F.  in  December.  The  range  between  day  and  night 
temperature  also  is  often  great.  The  annual  precipitation  decreases 
from  over  40  inches  in  the  east  to  between  15  and  25  inches  in  the 
west.  On  the  High  Veld  proper  the  rains,  which  occur  in  summer, 
are  tolerably  certain  ;  but  on  the  Middle  Veld  they  are  more  irregular 
and  vary  considerably  from  year  to  year. 

The  vegetation  is  that  of  a  gra^steppe  practically  unbroken 
by  trees  or  shrubs,  except  in  themoister  and  warmer  districts. 
The  whole  of  the  High  Veld  is  devoted  to  stock-raising,  and  its 
importance  may  be  gauged  by  the  fact  that  iiT  l^lTTtiore  than 
two-thirds  of  the  total  number  of  sheep  in  the  country  (3,360,000) 
were  found  in  those  districts  which  almost  entirely  belong 
to  it.  \Cattle  and  goats  are  also  most  numerous  in  this  region^ 
The  High  Veld  proper  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  stock,  though  it  is 
necessary  to  "trek"  to  lower  lands  during  the  winter  months. 
In  the  Middle  Veld  (to  which  the  outlying  districts  of  Waterbury 
and  Zoutpansberg  belong)  the  grass  is  not  so  good,  and  animals 
fed  upon  it  are  more  subject  to  disease.  On  the  High  Veld  the 
land  is  cultivated  only  to  a  hmited  extent,  though  it  is  possible 
that  the  development  of  irrigation  and  dry  farming  may  lead  to 
an  increase  of  the  arable  area  in  the  future,  (^^aize  and  Kaffir. J 
corn  are  the  principal  crops  grown  at  the  present  time,  j) 


332  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

The  Witwatersrand,  which  lies  along  the  northern  margin  of  the 
Middle  Veld  west  of  Johannesburg,  has  acquired  peculiar  importance 
in  recent  years  on  account  of  the  vast  quantities  of  gold  which  it 
contains.  The  rocks,  which  constitute  what  is  known  as  the  Main 
Reef  Series,  consist  of  a  quartz  conglomerate  or  banket,  in  which  the 
gold  lies  in  particles  so  small  that  they  are  rarely  visible  to  the 
naked  eye  ;  and  it  was  not  until  the  introduction  of  the  cyanide 
process  that  the  region  assumed  its  present  importance.  During 
^  the  three  years  1909-11  the  annual  output  averaged  £32,000,000. 
\/^  Coal^  which  appears  to  be  of  drift  origin,  occiurs  at  several  places, 
but  the  principal  mines  are  near  Witbank,  west  of  Middleburg. 
A  considerable  part  of  the  output  of  these  mines  is  exported,  by 
way  of  Louren^o  Marques,  to  the  west  coast  of  India  and  else- 
where. Coal  is  also  obtained  at  Boksburg  and  Springs,  east  of 
Johannesburg,  and  at  Belfast, 

The  Banken  are  better  adapted  to  arable  than  to  pastoral 
farming ;  and,  although  there  are  no  large  and  continuous  areas 
suitable  for  cultivation,  there  are  numerous  districts,  such  as 
those  round  Pretoria  and  Rustenburg,  and  on  the  slopes  of  the 
Zoutpansberg,  in  which,  in  addition  to  the  ordinary  cereals,  fruit, 
tobacco,  and  similar  crops  can  be  grown.  The  country  is  well 
watered  by  the  rivers  which  flow  down  from  the  High  Veld  ;  and 
a  certain  amount  of  irrigation  is  possible,  though  at  present  it  is 
^nly  practised  to  a  comparatively  limited  extent.  Except  in  the 
vX  lower  valleys,  where  malaria  is  rife,  the  country  is  suitable  for 
European  settlement. 

The  Premier  diamond  mine,  which  lies  north-east  of  Pretoria, 
has  an  output  valued  at  over  £1,000,000  annually. 

The  Bush  Veld  is  a  flat  country  and,  owing  to  its  lower  eleva- 
tion and  the  more  northerly  position  of  the  greater  part  of  it,  has 
a  much  warmer  climate  than  the  two  previous  regions.  At 
Komati  Poort,  for  example,  the  mean  annual  temperature  is 
74-5°  F.  The  rainfall,  which  amounts  to  about  30  inches  in  the 
east,  rapidly  decreases  towards  the  north  and  west,  and  much  of 
the  region  is  practically  without  water.  The  vegetation  consists 
largely  of  scrub,  and  there  is  much  good  pasture  ;  but  the  country 
is  unsuitable  for  stock  except  during  the  winter  months. 

Commerce  of  the  South  African  Union. — For  the  years  1909 
and  1910  the  average  value  of  the  exports  for  the  South  African 


/ 


SOUTH  AFRICA 


333 


Union  was  £52,000,000,  over  90  per  cent,  of  which  went  to  the 
United  Kingdom.  The  principal  articles  exported,  and  their  average 
value  were  as  follows  : — 

In  £  million. 


Gold      . . 

. , 

31-51 

Diamonds 

, , 

7-42 

Wool     . . 

, . 

3-77 

Feathers 

, . 

218 

Hides  and  skins 

1-22 

The  average  value  of  the  imports  for  the  same  period  was 
£30,380,000.  Textiles  and  clothing  (cotton  and  woollen  goods, 
apparel,  and  boots  and  shoes),  articles  of  food  and  drink  (wheat 
and  flour,  tea,  coffee,  and  sugar),  and  machinery  (agricultural  and 
mining)  contributed  over  one-half  of  this  amount.  About  60  per 
cent,  of  the  total  imports  were  from  the  United  Kingdom,  and  the 
bulk  of  the  remainder  from  British  possessions,  the  United  States, 
and  Germany. 

Basutoland 

Basutoland,  which  is  governed  by  a  High  Commissioner  in  the 
name  of  the  King,  consists  of  a  mountainous  region  bordering 
upon  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Natal,  and  the  Orange  Free  State. 
The  Drakensberg  lie  along  the  south-east  frontier  of  the  country, 
and  beyond  them  are  several  parallel  and  subsidiary  ranges. 
Much  of  the  soil  is  fertile,  while  the  climate  is  favourable  both  for 
arable  and  pastoral  farming.  Wheat,  maize,  Kaffir  corn,  wool, 
and  mohair  are  all  produced  and  exported  by  the  natives,  who 
practically  form  the  entire  population,  as  European  settlement  is 
forbidden. 

The  Bechuanaland  Protectorate 

The  Bechuanaland  Protectorate  belongs  to  the  South  African 
plateau,  and  the  greater  part  of  it  lies  between  3,000  and  4,000 
feet  above  sea-level.  In  the  east,  where  there  is  a  mean  annual 
rainfall  of  18  to  22  inches,  the  country  is  a  grassland  and  is 
inhabited,  but  in  the  west  it  passes  into  the  jCalahaii_deseij:. 
The  population  is  almost  entirely  a  native  one ;  and  the  chief 
wealth  consists  of  cattle,  which  within  recent  years  have  suffered 
greatly  from  pleuro-pneumonia.  Great  efforts  are  being  made  to 
stamp  out  this  disease,  as,  while  it  lasts,  the  markets  of  Rhodesia 


334  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

and  the  Transvaal  are  practically  closed  to  what  is  the  chief 
export  of  the  Bechuana  tribes.  Maize  and  Kaffir  corn  are  grown  ; 
but  in  years  of  deficient  rainfall,  which  occasionally  occur,  the 
crops  are  a  complete  failure.  There  are  believed  to  be  considerable 
supplies  of  underground  water  both  in  the  east  and  in  the  west, 
but  so  far  they  have  been  utilised  only  to  a  slight  extent. 

Southern  Rhodesia 

The  Rhodesian  plateau,  to  which  Southern  Rhodesia  belongs,  lies 
between  the  Limpopo  and  the  Zambesi.  The  greater  part  of  the 
region  has  an  elevation  of  over  3,000  feet ;  but  a  considerable 
area,  which  runs  from  south-west  to  north-east,  and  forms  the 
divide  between  the  waters  of  the  Zambesi  and  those  of  the 
Limpopo  and  the  Sabi,  is  over  4,000  feet,  and  in  places  over 
5,000  feet,  above  sea-level.  To  the  north  and  to  the  south,  the 
land  slopes  down  to  the  valleys  of  the  rivers  between  which  it 
lies,  and  only  there  is  it  less  than  1,000  feet  in  height.  The 
greater  part  of  the  highland  region  is  built  up  of  granitic  and 
metamorphic  rocks.  Lower  down  the  slopes  there  are  sedimentary 
formations,  generally  consisting  of  sandstones,  shales,  and  con- 
glomerates, covered  over  in  many  places  with  superficial  deposits 
such  as  laterite. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  Rhodesia  lies  within  the  tropics, 
it  has,  on  the  whole,  a  temperate  climate.  Bulawayo,  which  has 
an  altitude  of  4,469  feet,  has  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  67-5°  F., 
with  a  range  varying  from  58°  F.  in  June  to  73°  F.  in  January  ; 
while  Salisbury,  at  an  elevation  of  4,480  feet,  has  a  mean  of  65°  F. 
and  a  range  from  56°  F.  in  June  and  July  to  69°  F.  in  January. 
The  rainfall,  which  takes  place  almost  entirely  between  the 
beginning  of  November  and  the  end  of  March,  decreases  from  east 
to  west.  The  greater  part  of  Mashonaland  in  the  north-east  has 
between  30  and  40  inches,  while  Matabililand  in  the  south-west 
has,  as  a  rule,  between  20  and  30  inches.  The  highlands  are 
generally  healthy,  and  it  is  probable  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
country  with  an  elevation  over  4,000  feet  could  be  rendered  fit, 
as  much  of  it,  indeed,  at  present  is,  for  European  settlement.  At 
lower  levels  the  white  man  is  liable  to  contract  malaria,  though, 
when  the  land  between  3,000  and   4,000  feet    is    cleared    and 


SOUTH  AFRICA  335 

drained,  it  is  possible  that  he  may  be  able  to  occupy  it.     Below 
3,000  feet,  it  is  unlikely  that  he  will  settle. 

Minerals. — Within  the  highland  area  is  found  much  of  the 
mineral  wealth  which  at  present  is,  and  for  some  time  to  come  is 
likely  to  be,  the  principal  reason  for  the  exploitation  of  thejcountry. 
Gold,  which  is  obtained  both  from  reefs  and  from  banket  forma- 
tions, comes  first  in  importance,  and  the  annual  output  now 
exceeds  £2,500,000.  Many  of  the  mines  lie  along  the  route  taken 
by  the  railway  between  Bulawayo  and  Salisbury.  In  addition  to 
gold,  silver,  lead,  chrome,  iron  ore,  and  tin  are  all  known  to  exist, 
but  have  been  worked  as  yet  only  to  a  limited  extent.  Coal,  which 
occurs  in  rocks  of  Permian  age,  is  believed  to  be  widespread  over 
considerable  areas,  but  the  principal  mines  from  which  it  is 
obtained  at  present  are  at  Wankie,  near  the  western  frontier  of 
Matabililand,  where  the  annual  output  now  amounts  to  about 
200,000  tons.  The  coal  from  this  field  makes  its  way  south  for 
railway  purposes  as  far  as  Kimberley,  and  a  new  market  is  opening 
up  for  it  in  the  Katanga  mining  districts  of  the  Belgian  Congo,   ^^o- 

Agriculture. — Rhodesia  is  suitable  bothjor  arable  and  pastoraL  i 
farming.  For  the  former,  the  best  districts  are  probably  in 
Mashonaland,  where  the  rainfall  is  heaviest,  but  in  Matabililand 
also  there  are  considerable  areas  of  fertile  soil.  The  principal  food 
crops  grown  during  the  rains  arejnaize  and  Kaffir  corn.  Wheat, 
which  cannot  be  cultivated  in  summer,  as  it  is  liable  to  rust,  has 
hitherto  been  sown  as  a  winter  crop  on  irrigated  lands  ;  but  recent 
reports  appear  to  indicate  that,  in  the  damper  districts  at  least, 
irrigation  may  safely  be  dispensed  with.  The  cultivation  ot 
tobacco,  which  is  rapidly  increasing,  has,  in  many  cases,  given  a 
new  importance  to  Hght  granitic  soils,  formerly  fit  for  pasture  only. 
Among  the  fruits  grown  are  oranges,  lemons,  citrons,  bananas,  and 
pineapples.  But  it  is  as  a  stock-raising  country  that  Rhodesia  is 
at  present  most  important  from  an  agricultural  point  of  view. 
The  native  herds  have  suffered  severely  from  various  diseases 
within  recent  years,  but  these  are  being  overcome ;  and,  at  the  same 
time,  the  breed  of  cattle  is  being  improved  by  importation  from 
abroad.  The  farmer  now  finds  his  principal  markets  in  the  mining 
districts  of  Rhodesia  and  the  Belgian  Congo,  but  it  is  possible 
that  an  overseas  trade  in  frozen  meat  may  eventually  develop. 

Bulawayo  and  Salisbury  are  the  principal  towns,  but  there  are 


336  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

a  number  of  small  mining  and  agricultural  communities  scattered 
over  the  highland  region. 

Northern  Rhodesia. — ^The  territory  of  Northern  Rhodesia  is 
still  but  imperfectly  known.  The  greater  part  of  the  region  belongs 
to  the  African  plateau,  but  there  are  lowlands  in  the  valleys  of 
the  Zambesi,  the  Kafue,  and  the  Loangwa.  The  temperature  is 
relatively  high,  even  on  the  uplands.  In  the  basin  of  the  Zambesi, 
from  Lealui  to  Kazungula,  the  annual  mean  is  estimated  at 
74°  F.,  with  a  range  from  63°  F.  in  June  to  80°  F.  in 
March ;  while  at  Fort  Jameson,  which  has  an  altitude  of 
3,600  feet,  the  mean  for  the  whole  year  is  71°  F.,  for  July 
64°  F.,  and  for  January  76°  F.  The  rainfall,  which  is  less 
than  30  inches  in  the  south-west,  increases  to  over  40  inches  in 
the  north  and  north-east.  Over  the  greater  part  of  the  country 
thin  forest  and  savanna  are  the  prevailing  types  of  vegetation. 
Considerable  areas  are  reported  to  be  fit  for  cultivation,  and  maize  i 
and  other  farm  crops  are  grown,  though  most  attention  is  paid  to 
stock-raising.  Both  for  cattle  and  maize  the  best  market  at  pre- 
sent is  in  the  mining  districts  of  the  Belgian  Congo.  Attempts, 
apparently  successful,  have  been  made  to  raise  cotton  round  Fort 
Jameson  ;  and  it  is  also  grown  in  the  valleys  of  the  Loangwa  and 
the  Kafue,  which  are,  however,  much  less  suitable  for  white  settle- 
ment. Progress  is  also  being  made  with  the  mineral  development 
of  the  country  :  copper  is  worked  at  Bwana  M'Kubwa  and  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  upper  Kafue,  and  lead  and  zinc  are  found 
round  Broken  Hill.     Coal,  gold,  and  tin  are  all  known  to  exist. 

Communications  of  South  Africa. — The  railway  system  of 
South  Africa  may  best  be  considered  as  a  whole.  From  Capetown, 
a  line  runs  across  the  Karroo  and  the  High  Veld  to  Kimberley,  and 
then  on  through  Bechuanaland  and  the  Bechuanaland  Protectorate 
to  Bulawayo  in  Southern  Rhodesia,  where  it  branches.  One  part 
goes  north-west  to  cross  the  Zambesi  at  the  Victoria  Falls,  and 
then  north-east  to  Broken  Hill.  Broken  Hill  may  be  considered  as 
the  present  terminus  of  the  main  hue,  which  will  probably  be  eventu- 
ally continued  through  Northern  Rhodesia  into  German  East  Africa ; 
but  from  it  a  branch  runs  to  the  frontier  of  the  Belgian  Congo,  where 
it  connects  with  the  railway  to  Elisabethville  in  the  Katanga.  The 
other  Une  from  Bulawayo  goes  north-east  to  Salisbury,  and  con- 
nects there  with  a  line  to  Beira  in  Portuguese  East  Africa,  which 


i 


SOUTH  AFRICA  337 

has  thus  become  the  port  of  Southern  Rhodesia.  From  Port 
Elizabeth  and  East  London  two  Hnes  run  through  the  north-east 
districts  of  the  Cape,  and  meet  at  Springfontein  in  the  Orange 
Free  State,  from  which  point  the  raihoad  is  continued  by  way  of 
Bloemfontein,  Johannesburg,  and  Pretoria  to  Pietersburg  in  the 
Zoutpansberg  district  of  the  Transvaal.  This  line  is  connected 
with  that  from  Capetown  to  Bulawayo  by  cross-country  branches 
between  Naauwpoort  and  De  Aar,  Hamilton  (near  Bloemfontein) 
and  Kimberley,  Johannesburg  and  Fourteen  Springs,  and  Johannes- 
burg and  Maf eking  by  Zeerust.  From  Durban,  there  is  railway 
communication  north  and  south  along  the  coast,  but  the  most 
important  line  is  that  which  runs  inland  by  way  of  Pietermaritz- 
burg  to  Ladysmith,  where  it  divides,  one  branch  going  by  Van 
Reenen's  Pass  to  Bethlehem,  which  is  connected  with  Kjoonstad 
and  Bloemfontein,  and  the  other  going  by  Laing's  Nek  to  Johannes- 
burg. Finally,  Louren^o  Marques  has  been  made  into  a  port  of 
the  Transvaal  by  a  Une  which  runs  from  it,  passes  through  the 
coal  districts  west  of  Middleburg,  and  connects  with  Pretoria  and 
Johannesburg. 

Nyasaland 

The  British  Protectorate  of  Nyasaland  consists  of  a  strip  of 
country  which  lies  along  the  west  and  south  shores  of  Lake  Nyasa, 
and  extends  southwards  as  far  as  Chiwonga  on  the  Shire  River. 
The  lowlands  increase  in  height  from  125  feet  at  Chiwonga  to  over 
1,500  feet  along  the  shores  of  the  lake.  Behind  them  the 
country  ascends  in  a  series  of  plateaus  which  have  an  average 
elevation  of  between  3,000  and  4,000  feet,  but  rise  in  the 
Mlanje,  in  the  Shire  Highlands,  to  over  6,000,  and  in  the  Nyika,  in 
the  north,  to  over  7,000  feet.  The  climate  of  Nyasaland,  accord- 
ingly, varies  greatly  from  one  place  to  another.  At  Fort  John- 
ston, at  the  southern  end  of  Lake  Nyasa,  the  mean  annual 
temperature  is  76°  F.,  with  a  range  from  68°  F.  in  June  to 
81°  F.  in  December;  while  at  Lauderdale,  on  the  Mlanje, 
2,540  feet  above  sea-level,  the  annual  mean  is  only  70°  F. ;  the 
coldest  month  is  June,  with  a  mean  of  62°  F.,  and  the  hottest 
January,  with  a  mean  of  74-5°  F.  Over  the  greater  part  of  the 
country  the  rainfall  is  between  40  and  60  inches. 


338  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

Though  it  is  still  doubtful  whether  the  uplands  of  Nyasaland 
can  be  colonised,  British  settlements  have  existed  there  for  a 
number  of  years,  and  have  played  an  important  part  in  the 
economic  development  of  the  country.  Coffee  was  formerly  one 
of  the  principal  crops  grown  by  the  white  planters,  but,  as  for 
various  reasons  it  has  proved  less  successful  within  recent  years, 
it  has  been  superseded  to  a  great  extent  by  cotton  and 
tobacco.  The  cultivation  of  cotton  is  also  being  taken  up  by  the 
natives,  and,  as  the  quality  is  good,  there  is  every  prospect  of 
an  increased  output  in  the  near  future.  \Tea_and  rubber  planta- 
tions have  been  established,  and  appear  to  be  doing  well.  Maize, 
which  is  grown  by  the  natives,  is  also  exported.    \ 

The  want  of  a  proper  outlet  for  the  products  of  the  country  is 
at  present  the  chief  obstacle  to  its  development.  The  only  rail- 
way in  the  Protectorate  runs  from  Blantyre  in  the  Shire  Highland 
to  Port  Herald  on  the  Shire  River,  whence  goods  are  sent  by 
steamer  to  Chinde,  at  the  mouth  of  a  distributary  of  the  Zambesi. 
The  Lower  Shire  has,  however,  become  silted  up  to  such  an  extent 
recently  that  it  is  only  navigable  for  a  few  months  in  the  year ; 
and  it  is  proposed  to  carry  the  railway  from  Port  Herald  to  Villa 
Bocage,  the  head  of  the  permanent  fairway  on  the  river.  Other 
proposals  involve  lines  from  Villa  Bocage  to  Beira,  and  from 
Blantyre  to  Lake  Nyasa. 

Portuguese  East  Africa 

Portuguese  East  Africa,  which  extends  along  the  coast  from 
Natal  to  German  East  Africa,  and  inland  to  the  borders  of  the 
Transvaal,  Rhodesia,  and  Nyasaland,  and  the  eastern  shores  of 
Lake  Nyasa,  has  an  area  of  about  300,000  square  miles  and  a 
population  which  is  estimated  at  over  3,000,000,  of  whom  less  than 
10,000  are  Europeans.  The  country  consists,  in  the  main,  of  the 
East  African  coastal  plain  and  the  slopes  of  the  plateau.  South 
of  the  Zambesi,  it  extends  on  to  the  plateau  itself  only  in  a  few 
places,  but,  to  the  north  of  that  river,  it  includes  the  part  of  the 
plateau  which  lies  east  of  Lake  Nyasa  and  south  of  the  Rovuma. 
Comparatively  little  is  known  about  the  climate,  especially  in  the 
interior.  On  the  coast,  Louren^o  Marques,  in  the  south,  has  a  ; 
mean  annual  temperature  of  75**  F.,  with  a  range  from  68**  F. 
in  July  to  83°  F.  in  February ;    while   at    Mozambique,    towards 


SOUTH   AFRICA  339 

the  north,  the  figures  for  the  year  are  79°  F.,  for  July  74°  F., 
and  for  January  82°  F.  The  rainfall  is  generally  over  30  inches, 
though  in  some  parts  of  the  interior  it  is  less,  while  along  the  coast, 
north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Zambesi,  it  is  over  40  inches. 

Economic  progi:jess-4ra:s  been  ^very  slow.  Except  in  some  of  the 
drier-Tegtons^  the  interior,  the  country  is  generally  covered  with 
forest,  and  along  the  coast  it  is  often  swampy  and  unhealthy. 
Moreover,  with  the  exception  of  the  efforts  made  by  two  chartered 
companies — ^the  Nyasa  Company  which  administers  the  region 
east  of  Lake  Nyasa,  and  the  Mozambique  Company,  whose  pos- 
sessions lie  between  the  Sabi  and  the  Zambesi — comparatively 
little  has  been  done  to  develop  the  resources  of  the  country.  The 
districts  round  the  Zambesi  are  agriculturally  the  most  important 
at  the  present  time.  They  produce  the  greater  part  of  the  sugar 
which  is  exportedfrom_the  country,  though  some  is  also  grown 
in  the  vatteys^ofthe  Buzi  and  the  Sabi  further  to  the  south. 
Round  Quelimane,  to  the  north  of  the  delta,  there  are  plantations 
of  Ceara  rubber,  coconut  palms,  and  sisal  fibre.  In  the  country 
round  Beira  and  Mozambique  the  products  are  of  a  somewhat 
similar  character.  Mangrove  bark,  and  rubber  collected  from 
various  species  of  Landolphia,  are  also  exported  to  some  extent. 
In  the  interior  of  Gazaland,  in  the  south,  there  are  considerable 
areas  of  good  pasture  land,  of  which,  however,  but  little  use  has 
as  yet  been  made.  The  principal  mineral  district  yet  known  lies 
in  the  valley__of_the  jambesi,  about  300  miles  from  its  mouth. 
Thg]:&rgQld  is  worked,  and  copper  and  coal  are  known  to  exist. 
"AT  considerable  transit  tra3e~passes  "Tlnwigh  Portuguese  East 
Africa.  From  Louren^o  Marques  is  despatched  no  small  part  of 
the  exports  and  imports  of  the  Transvaal.  Beira  is  the  port  for 
Rhodesia,  and  Chinde  serves  Nyasaland. 

German  South- West  Africa 

German  South-West  Africa,  which  lies  between  the  Orange  and 
the  Cunene,  has  an  area  of  322,000  square  miles  and  a  mixed  native 
population  of  about  82,000.  From  the  coastal  strip,  which  consists 
mainly  of  sand  dunes,  the  land  rises  to  the  Damanama  plateau,  the 
greater  part  of  which  lies  between  4,000  and  6,000  feet  above  sea- 
level.  Along  the  coast,  and  in  the  interior  of  the  country  south 
of  the  latitude  of  Walfish  Bay,  the  rainfall  is  meagre,  but  it  increases 


340 


ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 


i 


V 


towards  the  north-east  where  a  considerable  area  has  over  20 
inches  per  year.  In  the  last-mentioned  region  agriculture  is 
possible,  and  cereals  and  lucerne  are  grown,  though  they  are  always 
liable  to  suffer  from  drought.  The  central  parts  of  the  country 
are  more  favourable  for  cs^le-raM|ig-4han  for  agriculture,  and  the 
south  is  a  desert.  It  is  naainlyon  account  of  its  mineral  wealth 
that  German  South- West  Africa  is  exploited  at  the  present  time. 
Diamonds  are  found  along  the  coastaljtrip  between  the  24th  and 
the  28th  parallels,  and  are  exported  to  the  annual  value  of  over 
£1,000,000.  Copipsr  is  worked  in  the  northern  districts.  From 
Swakopmund  one  railway  runs  north-east  to  Tsumeb,  in  the  copper- 
producing  regions,  while  another  goes  by  Karibib  and  Keetmans- 
hoop  through  the  central  part  of  the  country  to  Liideritzort. 
Waliish  Bay,  the  chief  harbour,  is  British  territory. 


k 


CHAPTER  XXXIII 

WEST  AFRICA 

The  coastal  regions  of  Africa,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Senegal  almost 
to  that  of  the  Cunene,  together  with  the  basin  of  the  Congo,  receive 
a  heavy  rainfall  and  are  covered  with  dense  forests.  They  have 
been  divided  among  a  number  of  European  states  whose  territory 
frequently  extends  inland  to  the  savanna  lands  lying  beyond  the 
forested  area. 

British  West  Africa 

Gambia 

Gambia  consists  of  a  narrow  strip  of  land  which  extends  along 
both  banks  of  the  river  of  that  name  for  a  distance  of  about 
250  miles  from  the  estuary  by  which  it  enters  the  Atlantic.  The 
total  area  is  about  4,000  square  miles  ;  and  the  inhabitants,  who 
are  mostly  negroes,  are  believed  to  number  150,000.  UnUke  the 
other  British  possessions  on  the  west  coast,  Gambia  has  a  well- 
marked  dry  season  lasting  from  November  to  May,  and  the  mean 
annual  rainfall  at  Bathurst  only  amounts  to  47  inches.  Along  the 
banks  of  the  river,  especially  in  its  lower  course,  there  are  mangrove 
swamps ;  but,  further  inland,  savanna  is  the  prevailing  type  of 
vegetation.  Ground  nuts  are  extensively  grown  and,  along  with 
a  small  quantity  of  rubber  obtained  from  several  varieties  of 
Landolphia,  form  the  chief  exports  of  the  region.  Bathurst  is  the 
capital  and  only  town  of  importance. 

Sierra  Leone 
The  colony  and  protectorate  of  Sierra  Leone,  which  lie  between 
French  Guinea  on  the  north  and  the  Republic  of  Liberia  on  the 
east  and  south-east,  have  a  total  area  of  about  30,000  square  miles 
and  a  population,  mostly  black,  of  over  1,000,000.  The  country 
extends  from  the  slopes  of  the  African  plateau,  across  an  intervening 
region  of  undulating  land,  to  the  deltas  of  the  various  rivers  by 
which  it  is  drained.  The  climate  is  generally  considered  to  be 
particularly  unhealthy  for  Europeans;    but  the  high  death  rate 

341 

22— (1326) 


342  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

of  former  times  seems  to  have  been  due,  in  part  at  least,  to 
ignorance  of  the  precautions  necessary  in  regions  such  as  this. 
Freetown,  on  the  coast,  has  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  81°  F., 
with  a  very  sHght  range  throughout  the  year,  and  a  mean  rainfall; 
of  174  inches  ;  but  on  the  uplands,  in  the  interior,  the  temperature 
is  lower  and  the  rainfall  less.  Two-thirds  of  the  total  value  of  the 
exports  are  obtained  from  the  fruit  of  the  oil  palm,  while  the 
remaining  third  is  mainly  accounted  for  by  such  other  products 
of  the  tropical  forest  as  kola  nuts,  ginger,  rubber,  and  rice.  Free- 
town, the  capital,  has  a  good  harbour  and  is  an  important  coaUng 
station. 

The  Gold  Coast,  Ashanti,  and  the  Northern  Territories. 

The  Gold  Coast,  Ashanti,  and  the  Northern  Territories  have  a 
total  area  of  about  80,000  square  miles,  and  a  population  which 
is  probably  between  1,500,000  and  2,000,000.  Except  in  the 
north,  where  it  belongs  to  the  Upper  Guinea  plateau,  the  country 
is  generally  flat  or  undulating.  The  mean  annual  temperature 
varies  ;  but,  as  a  rule,  it  falls  between  78''  F.  and  82°  F.,  the  range 
throughout  the  year  being  small.  Owing  to  the  configuration  of 
the  coast,  the  rainfall  decreases  rapidly  from  west  to  east ;  an 
Axim  has  over  80  inches,  while  Kwitta  has  less  than  20 ;  it  als 
decreases  inland,  and  in  the  northern  part  of  the  country  th 
precipitation  is  about  40  inches.  There,  are,  therefore,  two  well' 
marked  natural  regions.  The  Gold  Coast,  except  in  the  east,  an* 
the  southern  part  of  Ashanti  are  covered  with  forest,  while  th 
remainder  of  the  area  consists  of  savanna  land. 

The  Forest. — ^The  rapid  advance  of  cacao  to  the  premier  place 
among  the  exports  of  the  Gold  Coast  is  partly  due  to  the  recent 
adoption  of  better  methods  of  preparing  the  bean  for  market, 
though  the  native  grower  still  leaves  something  to  be  desired  in 
this  respect.  Rubber  is  obtained  from  Funtumia  elastica,  which 
grows  in  a  wild  condition ;  but  the  quality  is  inferior,  and 
plantations  are  being  estabhshed  in  those  districts  where  the  wild 
plant  has  been  destroyed  by  reckless  exploitation.  The  yield  of 
palm  oil  and  palm  kernels  has  decreased,  largely  as  a  result  of  the 
greater  attention  paid  to  the  cultivation  of  cacao.  Kola  nuts,  much 
in  demand  for  chewing  purposes  among  the  natives  of  the  Sudan, 
are  obtained  from  trees  found  in  the  forests  north  of  Kumasi. 


WEST  AFRICA  343 

Mahogany,  which  is  floated  down  from  the  interior,  is  the  most 
valuable  timber  of  the  region.  Gold  ranks  next  to  cacao  in  the  list 
of  exports,  and  is  obtained  partly  by  dredging  the  rivers,  and 
partly  by  mining. 

The  Savanna  is  freely  cultivated,  but  its  exports  are  incon- 
siderable. Cotton  is  grown  for  home  consumption,  and  it  is 
unlikely  that  the  area  under  it  will  be  increased  until  the  existing 
means  of  transport  to  the  coast  have  been  greatly  improved. 
Small  quantities  of  gum,  shea  butter,  and  rubber,  and  some  cattle, 
are  at  present  the  chief  exports  of  the  region. 

Communications. — ^The  country  is  handicapped  by  the  want  of 
a  good  port,  and  the  inadequacy  of  its  communications.  The 
Volta  is  navigable  for  some  distance,  but  its  course  is  obstructed 
by  falls  ;  and  the  only  railway  which  penetrates  far  into  the 
interior  is  that  from  Sekondi  to  Kumasi. 

Nigeria 

Nigeria,  which  consists  of  the  colony  of  Lagos  and  the  former 
protectorates  of  Northern  and  Southern  Nigeria,  is  the  most 
important  possession  of  Britain  in  West  Africa.  It  has  an  area 
of  about  336,000  square  miles,  and  a  native  population  which  is 
estimated  at  17,000,000. 

Physical  Features. — ^The  coast  land,  of  recent,  and  largely 
of  deltaic,  formation,  is  fringed  in  places  by  lagoons.  Further 
inland,  and  covering  a  considerable  part  of  Southern  Nigeria,  is 
an  intermediate  belt  of  clays,  sandstones,  and  shales,  which  have 
built  up  a  plain  that  rises  in  the  north  to  a  height  of  about 
650  feet.  Much  of  the  remainder  of  Nigeria  consists  of  crystalline 
rocks,  which  form  open,  undulating  country,  frequently  broken  by 
groups  of  rounded  hills.  On  the  left  bank  of  the  Niger,  and  along 
the  upper  and  lower  courses  of  the  Benue,  there  are,  however, 
considerable  areas  of  sedimentary  rocks,  in  which  the  rivers  have 
cut  narrow  valleys,  and  to  which  they  have,  consequently,  given 
a  plateau-like  formation ;  while  along  the  course  of  the  middle 
Benue  the  Cretaceous  rocks  have  weathered  down  into  a  great 
plain.  In  the  north-east  of  the  country  there  are  alluvial  plains 
which  occupy  a  considerable  part  of  the  basin  of  Lake  Chad. 

Climate. — In  Southern  Nigeria  and  in  the  lowlands  of  Northern 
Nigeria,  the  temperature  is  similar  to  that  of  the  Gold  Coast. 


344  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

Lagos,  for  example,  has  an  annual  mean  of  79°  F.,  with  a  range 
from  75°  F.  in  August  to  81°  F.  in  February  and  March ;  and 
Zungeru  one  of  81-°  F.,  with  a  range  from  77°  F.  in  August  to 
87°  F.  in  March.  On  the  upland  districts  conditions  are  somewhat 
more  bracing,  and  in  extreme  cases  the  thermometer  even  falls 
below  freezing  point.  Precipitation  decreases  from  south  to  north  ; 
and,  while  the  coastal  districts  east  of  the  delta  of  the  Niger  have  a 
mean  annual  rainfall  of  160  inches,  the  lands  lying  near  Lake  Chad, 
in  the  extreme  north-east,  have  less  than  20  inches. 

Natural  Regions. — Except  in  the  north-east  and  north-west, 
the  greater  part  of  Southern  Nigeria  is  covered  by  the  tropical 
forest,  which  also  extends  up  the  valley  of  the  Niger  into  the 
southern  part  of  Northern  Nigeria.  The  remainder  of  the  country 
falls  within  the  savanna  lands  of  the  Sudan,  as  far  north,  at  least, 
as  the  eleventh  parallel.  Beyond  this  limit,  the  character  of  the 
vegetation  changes,  and  the  savanna  gives  place  to  a  more  arid 
region,  in  which  the  gum-bearing  acacia  and  other  trees  of  a 
similar  character  are  conspicuous.  Three  natural  regions  may, 
therefore,  be  recognised :  the  forest,  the  savanna,  and  the 
semi-arid  lands. 

The  Forest. — In  this  region  the  natives  only  grow  food-stuffs 
sufficient  to  meet  their  own  requirements,  and  depend  for  their 
exports  mainly  upon  the  natural  products  of  the  country.  Of 
these,  palm  oil  and  palm  kernels,  which  together  hold  the  first 
place,  are  almost  entirely  obtained  from  trees  growing  wild 
in  the  forest,  the  resources  of  which  in  this  respect  have  not  yet 
been  fully  developed.  Rubber  is  procured  in  a  variety  of  ways. 
Funtumia  elastica  and  Landolphia  owariensis  are  indigenous  to  the 
region,  but  both  have  suffered  greatly  from  reckless  overtapping. 
The  former  is  now  grown  in  communal  plantations,  but  the  latter 
is  unsuitable  for  cultivation.  In  addition,  the  Para  rubber  tree 
{Hevea  hrasiliensis)  has  been  introduced  into  the  country,  and 
appears  to  be  doing  well  in  those  districts  where  soil  and  climate 
are  favourable.  Cacao  was  formerly  grown  mainly  in  the  west, 
where  the  trees  seem  to  have  suffered  from  the  long,  dry  season, 
but  plantations  have  recently  been  established  in  the  south-east, 
where  the  rainy  season  is  more  prolonged ;  and  cacao  is  now  an 
important  article  of  export.  Other  forest  products  include  mahogany 
and  ebony.     Coal  of  Tertiary  age  is  found  on  both  sides  of  the 


WEST  AFRICA  345 

Niger ;    and  among  other  minerals  known  to  exist  are  gold,  iron, 
and  tin. 

The  Savanna. — For  the  support  of  the  population  of  this  region, 
which  in  places  is  very  dense,  the  chief  food  crops  cultivated  are 
Guinea  corn  (Indian  millet  or  juar)  and  other  varieties  of  millet, 
wheat,  maize,  and  rice.  Guinea  corn  is  grown  throughout  the 
country,  maize  in  the  wetter  districts  of  the  south,  wheat  in  the 
drier  districts  of  the  north,  and  rice  in  various  places  where  the 
land  is  swampy.  In  years  of  deficient  rainfall,  the  inhabitants 
of  the  northern  districts  frequently  suffer  from  famine. 

Cotton  has  always  been  grown  by  the  natives  for  domestic  manu- 
factures,   and  attempts  are  now  being   made  to  induce  them  to 
grow  it  for  export  to  Lancashire,  where  there  is  a  ready  demand 
for  it.     In  order  to  improve  the  quality,  various  exotics  have  been 
introduced,  but  these  appear  to  be  more  subject  than  native  varie- 
ties to  insect  pests,  besides  being  unsuited  in  other  ways  to  their 
new  environment ;    and  it  is  probable  that  more  progress  will  be 
made  by  the  improvement  of  the  indigenous  plants.     The  British 
Cotton  Growing  Association  has  established  a    number    of    gin- 
neries  in   the   country,  and  the  prospects  of  an  increased  output 
appear  on  the  whole  to  be  good.    The  climate  and  soil  are  favour- 
able, the  agricultural  population  is  industrious  and  experienced, 
and  the  demand  is  likely  to  prove  steady.     On  the  other  hand, 
the  methods  of  cultivation  are  generally  somewhat  primitive,  and, 
as  a  result,  much  of  the  land  is  required  for  the  production  of  food 
crops,  though,  with  the  extension  of  railways,  it  is  probable  that 
new  areas,  especially  in  the  north,  wiU  be  opened  up  in  the  near 
future.     Other    products    of    an    agricultural   nature   which   are 
exported  include  shea  butter,  fibres  of  various  j kinds,  ground  nuts, 
and  Kano  leather  (which  is  known  in  Europe  as  Morocco  leather). 
Tin,  which  is  the  most  valuable  mineral  of  Nigeria,  is  found  in 
various  places,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the  Bauchi  plateau, 
a  region  in  the  central  part  of  the  crystalline  area,  with  an  elevation 
of  between  3,000  and  4,000  feet.     It  occurs  in  the  alluvial  deposits 
which  cover  the  plateau  and  its  northern  margin,  and  it  is  these 
deposits  which  are  at  present  being  exploited ;    but  the  ultimate 
success  of  the  field  will  probably  depend  upon  the  discovery  of  pay- 
' !  ing  lodes  in  the  underlying  rock.     With  the  extension  of  the  railway 


346  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

in  the  immediate  future.  Iron  ore  occurs  in  various  places,  and 
was  formeriy  smelted  by  the  natives  ;  but,  with  the  importation 
of  cheaper  foreign  iron,  these  works  have  been  abandoned.  The 
ore  itself  seems  unsuitable  for  export. 

Communications,  Trade,  Etc. — During  the  period  of  high 
water,  the  Niger  is  navigable  by  steamers  to  Jebba,  and  the  Benue 
throughout  its  whole  course  in  Nigeria ;  but  both  rivers  require  a 
considerable  amount  of  supervision  to  keep  their  lower  courses 
clear,  as  they  are  liable  to  be  choked  by  vegetation.  The  principal 
railway  is  that  which  runs  from  Lagos  by  way  of  Abeokuta  and 
Jebba  to  Minna.  Here  it  meets  another  line  from  Baro,  a  river 
port  on  the  Niger  some  distance  above  its  confluence  with  the 
Benue,  to  Kano,  a  great  native  trading  centre  in  the  north  of  the 
country.  From  Zaria,  on  this  latter  line,  a  light  railway  runs  to 
the  tin-field  of  the  Bauchi  plateau. 

The  principal  exports  have  akeady  been  indicated.  The 
imports  consist  very  largely  of  cotton  goods,  hardware,  and 
miscellaneous  articles. 

French  West  Africa 

The  French  possessions  in  West  Africa  include  Senegal,  French 
Guinea,  the  Ivory  Coast,  Upper  Senegal  and  Niger,  and  the 
French  Congo.  France  also  claims  sovereignty  over  the  greater 
part  of  the  Western  Sahara,  but  of  that  region  httle  is  known  ; 
and  French  rule,  if  acknowledged  at  all  by  the  wild  Tuareg  tribes, 
who  are  its  only  inhabitants,  is  acknowledged  only  in  the  most 
superficial  manner.  Of  much  more  importance  are  the  other  regions 
mentioned,  which  belong  mainly  to  the  forests  and  the  savanna 
lands  of  West  Africa. 

Senegal 

Senegal,  which  has  an  area  of  74,000  square  miles,  lies  between 
the  Senegal  and  the  Gambia.  The  country,  which  is  generally 
flat  and  sandy,  lies  on  the  northern  margin  of  the  belt  of  summer 
rainfall,  and,  except  in  the  south,  the  total  precipitation  is  less 
than  20  inches.  For  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  therefore,  the 
land  has  the  appearance  of  a  desert,  and  cultivation  is  only  possible 
during  the  summer  months.     In  addition  to  food  crops,  such  as 


WEST  AFRICA  347 

rice,  maize,  and  millets,  ground  nuts  are  extensively  grown,  and 
form  the  chief  export  of  the  colony.  From  the  wetter  districts  a 
Httle  rubber  is  obtained,  and,  from  the  drier,  some  gum.  The 
native  population  numbers  over  1,000,000. 

French  Guinea 

French  Guinea,  which  has  an  area  of  95,000  square  miles, 
extends  from  the  coast  between  Portuguese  Guinea  and  Sierra 
Leone,  across  the  Futa  Jallon  plateau,  into  the  basin  of  the  Niger. 
It  lies  within  the  belt  of  heavy  summer  rainfall ;  and  on  the  sea- 
ward slopes,  where  precipitation  is  heaviest,  there  are  tropical 
forests  from  which  rubber  and  oil  palm  products  are  obtained. 
In  the  interior,  where  the  rainfall  is  much  lower,  savanna  prevails, 
and  large  numbers  of  cattle  are  raised  for  export  to  Liberia  and 
Sierra  Leone.  Rice  and  tropical  fruits  are  everywhere  grown  in 
abundance.  The  population  numbers  about  1,500,000,  of  whom 
less  than  2,000  are  Europeans.  Konakri  is  the  capital  and  chief 
port  of  the  colony. 

The  Ivory  Coast 

The  Ivory  Coast  lies  between  Liberia  and  the  Gold  Coast,  and 
extends  inland  to  the  Upper  Guinea  plateau.  In  the  south  there 
is  heavy  rainfall,  and  the  land  is  covered  with  dense  tropical  forests, 
in  which  rubber-producing  plants,  such  as  Funtumia  elastica 
and  Landolphia  owariensis,  oil  palms,  and  mahogany  are  all  found. 
The  difficulties  of  transport  to  the  coast  have  hitherto  prevented 
the  development  of  this  region,  and  some  of  it  is  still  unexplored. 
The  savanna  lands  in  the  north  contain  a  large  agricultural  popula- 
tion, which  carries  on  considerable  trade  with  the  Sudan.  The 
area  of  the  colony  is  about  130,000  square  miles,  and  its  population 
is  over  1,000,000.     Grand  Bassam  is  the  chief  commercial  centre. 

Dahomey 
Dahomey  consists  of  a  narrow  strip  of  territory  between  German 
Togoland  and  Nigeria.  It  rises  from  the  coast  inland  to  a  height 
of  about  1,200  feet,  and  then  falls  away  towards  the  basin  of  the 
Niger.  The  chief  exports  of  the  region  are  the  products  of  the 
oil-palm. 


348  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 


The  Upper  Senegal  and  Niger 

The  Upper  Senegal  and  Niger,  which  has  an  area  of  about 
370,000  square  miles,  consists  in  the  main  of  a  somewhat  broken 
plateau  of  moderate  elevation.  In  the  south-west  the  mean  pre- 
cipitation is  over  40  inches,  but  it  rapidly  diminishes  towards  the 
north  and  east,  and,  at  Timbuktu,  is  only  about  8  inches.  The 
vegetation  ranges  from  the  rich  savanna  of  the  more  favoured 
districts  to  the  acacia  thickets  bordering  the  Sahara,  and  consider- 
able areas  depend  for  their  fertihty  upon  the  annual  floods  of  the 
Niger.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the  inhabitants, 
and  millet,  rice,  and  maize  are  all  grown  to  meet  the  home 
demand,  which  is  considerable,  as  the  population  numbers  over 
6,000,000.  The  attempts  made  to  cultivate  American  cotton 
have  proved  unsuccessful,  and  recourse  is  now  being  had,  as  in 
Nigeria,  to  the  improvement  of  indigenous  varieties.  Some  rubber 
and  kola  are  obtained  in  the  south-west ;  and  among  other  exports 
are  ground  nuts,  gold,  and  ivory.  The  region  is  one  in  which  a 
certain  amount  of  economic  development  is  possible,  and,  as  the 
French  have  estabhshed  good  government  and  the  population  is 
industrious,  such  development  will  probably  take  place. 

Communications  of  French  West  Africa.— Dakar,  the  chief 
city  of  Senegal,  is  one  of  the  few  places  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa 
which  it  has  been  found  possible  to  convert  into  a  good  port.  It 
is  connected  by  rail  with  St.  Louis  at  the  mouth  of  the  Senegal 
river,  which  has  hitherto  offered  the  chief  Une  of  penetration  into 
the  country,  though  it  is  only  navigable  for  about  half  the  year. 
The  head  of  navigation  is  at  Kayes,  and  from  that  town  a  railway 
has  been  constructed  to  Koulikoro  on  the  Niger.  This  line  is  of 
considerable  importance,  as  by  means  of  it  can  be  exported  not  only 
the  rubber,  gold,  and  ivory  of  the  Niger  districts,  but  less  valuable 
articles  (such  as  ground  nuts),  which  formerly  could  not  stand  the 
cost  of  transport.  Thies,  between  Dakar  and  St.  Louis,  is 
eventually  to  be  connected  with  Kayes.  In  French  Guinea  there 
is  a  line  from  Konakri  to  Kouroussa  on  the  Niger,  in  the  Ivory 
Coast  one  from  Abidj  can  to  Dimbokro,  and  in  Dahomey  one  from 
Kotonu  inland  for  a  distance  of  about  200  miles.  These  various 
lines  serve  the  colonies  through  which  they  run,  and  to  some  extent, 
the  Upper  Senegal  and  Niger  as  well,  though  most  of  the  trade  of 


WEST  AFRICA  349 

that  region  passes  down  the  Senegal,  while  a  very  little  goes  across 
the  Sahara. 

The  Republic  of  Liberia 
The  interior  of  the  country  is,  as  yet,  but  imperfectly  known, 
but  in  places  it  appears  to  rise  to  a  considerable  height.  The  land 
is  covered  by  dense  forest,  except  in  the  south,  where  clearings 
have  been  made,  and  in  the  north,  where  the  forest  is  replaced 
by  savanna.  The  population  is  entirely  black,  the  southern  dis- 
tricts being  occupied  by  the  descendants  of  freed  slaves,  who 
number  about  15,000 ;  while  the  remainder  of  the  country  is  still 
in  the  hands  of  the  aborigines,  of  whom  there  are  about  2,000,000. 
Among  the  chief  exports  at  present  are  palm  oil,  coffee,  piassava, 
cacao,  ivory,  and  ginger,  but  the  total  output  is  small.  The  forest 
products,  which  include  rubber  obtained  from  Funtumia  elastica  and 
valuable  timbers  such  as  mahogany,  have  up  to  the  present  been 
exploited  only  to  a  slight  extent.  Communications  with  the 
interior  are  very  bad,  and  the  forest  paths  are  often  closed  as  a 
result  of  inter-tribal  disputes.  In  fact,  when  the  great  natural 
wealth  of  Liberia  is  considered,  its  economic  development  can 
hardly  be  said  to  have  begun.     Monrovia  is  the  chief  town. 

TOGOLAND 

The  German  Protectorate  of  Togoland,  which  lies  between  the 
Gold  Coast  and  Dahomey,  has  an  area  of  33,000  square  miles  and 
a  population  of  about  1,000,000.  Much  of  the  country  is  moun- 
tainous ;  and  as  the  rainfall  is  comparatively  low,  ranging  from 
25  to  30  inches  on  the  coast  to  50  to  60  inches  in  the  interior, 
it  is  generally  a  savanna  land.  The  oil  palm,  which  grows  near 
the  coast,  and  Funtumia  elastica,  which  thrives  in  the  interior, 
furnish  the  chief  exports.  Plantations  for  the  cultivation,  among 
other  things,  of  maize,  cotton,  and  rubber,  have  been  established 
by  the  Germans,  and  appear  to  be  successful.  Lome  is  the  capital 
and  port  of  the  country. 

Kamerun 

The  German  colony  of  Kamerun  has  an  area  of  191,000  square 
miles.  The  country  rises  from  a  fiat  coastal  plain  to  the  high  land  of 
the  African  plateau,  which  falls  away  on  the  east  to  the  basin  of 
the  Congo,  and  on  the  north  to  the  depression  of  Lake  Chad.     In 


350  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY  ] 

the  south-west  the  volcanic  massif  of  Kamerun  rises  to  a  height 
of  14,500  feet.  Along  the  coast  and  for  some  distance  inland,  there 
is  a  mean  annual  rainfall  of  at  least  80  inches,  though  in  places  it 
is  much  heavier.  Towards  the  east  there  is  a  slqjv,  and  towards 
the  north  a  more  rapid,  decrease  in  precipitation.  Much  of  the 
coastal  plain  is  covered  with  mangrove  swamps,  and  dense  forests 
stretch  over  the  southern  and  western  parts  of  the  plateau ;  but, 
in  the  regions  of  lighter  rainfall  further  inland,  these  give  place  ta 
extensive  savannas. 

The  Kamerun  is  being  steadily  developed  by  Germany,  but  in  a 
country,  much  of  which  has  a  climate  unsuitable  for  Europeans, 
progress  must  necessarily  be  slow.  The  forest  products  include 
the  oil  and  coconut  palms,  valuable  timbers  and  cabinet  woods, 
and  various  rubber-producing  plants.  Where  the  soil  is  fertile,  as 
is  the  case  on  the  slopes  of  the  Kamerun  itself,  and  elsewhere, 
plantations  have  been  established  mainly  for  the  cultivation  of 
cacao  and  rubber.  The  savannas  contain  large  areas  suitable  for 
cattle-raising,  and  it  is  said  that  much  land  north  of  the  Benue  is 
adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  cotton.  Considerable  attention  is 
being  paid  to  the  development  of  communications,  and  a  railway 
is  being  constructed  from  Victoria  to  a  port  on  the  Sanga  (a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Congo).  The  exports  consist  of  forest  and  plantation 
produce  and  ivory,  and  the  imports  of  manufactured  goods.  The 
bulk  of  the  trade  is  transacted  with  Germany. 

French  Congo 

The  French  Congo,  which  is  continuous  with  the  other  Frenct 
possessions  in  West  Africa,  has  an  area  of  over  700,000  square  miles. 
Behind  the  coastal  plain  the  land  rises  to  the  Crystal  mountains, 
which  have  a  height  varying  from  3,000  to  4,500  feet,  and  then 
falls  away  to  the  plateau  beyond,  where  the  elevation  is  between 
1,500  and  3,000  feet.  The  southern  part  of  the  country  lies  withir 
the  belt  of  heavy  equatorial  rainfall  and  is  covered  by  forests 
the  northern  districts,  on  the  other  hand,  have  a  well-marked  drjj 
season  and  form  savanna  lands.  j 

The  country  has,  as  yet,  been  developed  only  to  a  slight  extend 
partly  on  account  of  the  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  a  supply  of 
suitable  labour.  In  the  forest  zone  the  population  is  small,  ano 
over  the  whole  country  probably  averages  less  than  fifteen  to  thf 


WEST  AFRICA  351 

square  mile,  while  certain  districts  appear  to  have  been  almost 
entirely  devastated  by  sleeping  sickness.  The  forest  products 
are  similar  to  those  of  other  parts  of  West  Africa,  and  coffee,  cacao, 
and  vanilla  are  grown  on  European  plantations.  On  the  savanna 
lands  the  conditions  of  economic  development  appear  to  be  more 
favourable,  but  these  districts  are  at  present  far  removed  from 
accessible  routes.  A  railway  line  has  been  planned  from  Brazzaville, 
on  Stanley  Pool,  to  Pointe  Noire,  on  the  Atlantic. 

The  Belgian  Congo 

This  region,  which  extends  over  the  greater  part  of  the  Congo 
basin,  has  an  estimated  area  of  over  900,000  square  miles,  and  a 
population  which  is  believed  to  number  15,000,000.  The  country 
consists,  in  the  main,  of  a  plateau  of  sandstone  formation,  which 
occupies  the  site  of  an  old  inland  lake.  The  general  slope  of  this 
plateau  is  toward  the  Atlantic,  and  the  greater  part  of  it  has  an 
altitude  ranging  from  1,000  to  2,000  feet.  In  the  south-east  it  is 
bounded  by  uplands  rising  to  the  Congo-Zambesi  divide,  and  in 
the  east  by  the  highlands  that  border  the  rift  valley. 

The  Belgian  Congo  lies  on  either  side  of  the  equator,  and  the 
temperature  is  everywhere  high  throughout  the  year,  though,  on 
the  whole,  it  increases  from  south  to  north.  In  the  Katanga 
upland,  in  the  south-east,  the  mean  annual  temperature  is 
73°  F.,  while  in  the  north  of  the  country  it  is  about  84°  F. 
Probably  the  mean  for  the  whole  region  is  80°  F.,  the  variation 
between  one  season  and  another  being  very  slight.  Except  along 
the  coast,  the  rainfall  is  considerable  ;  over  the  greater  part  of  the 
country  it  occurs  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  but  is  heaviest  when 
the  sun  is  overhead.  In  the  east  and  south-east  it  varies  from 
40  to  60  inches,  but  elsewhere  it  is  generally  over  60  inches. 

Much  of  the  soil  is  relatively  poor,  as  it  consists  of  laterite, 
which  absorbs  water  very  readily.  In  the  region  of  heavy  rain- 
fall, and  more  especially  in  the  river  valleys,  dense  tropical  forest 
covers  the  land.  On  the  higher  grounds,  between  the  river  valleys, 
there  are  Hghter  forests  and,  in  places,  savannas.  The  drier  districts 
in  the  south-east  and  east  are  mainly  savanna  lands. 

With  the  scanty  knowledge  of  the  country  which  at  present 
exists,  a  division  into  natural  regions  is  practically  impossible. 


352  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

It    will    suffice    to    direct    attention    to    the    present    economic 
development  of  the  forest  lands  and  of  the  Katanga. 

The  Congo  Forest. — ^The  chief  export  of  this  region  is  rubber, 
obtained  from  a  number  of  wild  plants,  of  which  the  most 
important  are  various  species  of  Landolphia,  and,  notably,  Landolphia 
owariensis.  In  certain  districts  these  plants  have  been  exhausted 
by  reckless  overtapping ;  and,  though  there  are  large  areas  of 
virgin  forest  still  unexploited,  they  often  he  far  from  the  existing 
lines  of  communication.  Partly  as  a  result  of  the  decreased  pro- 
ductivity of  the  accessible  areas,  and  partly  because  of  the  aboli- 
tion of  forced  labour,  the  output  within  recent  years  has  shown 
a  steady  decline.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Government  has  done 
much  to  encourage  the  cultivation  of  rubber-producing  trees  ;  and 
large  plantations  of  Funtumia  elastica,  Hevea  hrasiliensis,  and 
Manihot  Glaziovii  have  been  established.  According  to  the  latest 
reports,  however,  these  plantations  have  not  yet  proved  successful, 
and  their  total  output  is  almost  negligible. 

The  oil  palm  also  grows  throughout  the  forest  region,  but 
hitherto  the  oil  has  been  extracted  entirely  by  native  methods,  and 
the  quantity  produced  has  been  small.  Recently,  the  Government 
has  begun  to  devote  more  attention  to  the  industry,  and  modern 
machinery  has  been  introduced  into  several  districts.  Cacao,  which 
is  grown  in  a  number  of  plantations,  now  contributes  an  appre- 
ciable amount  to  the  exports  of  the  country ;  and  experiments  are 
being  made  in  the  cultivation  of  cotton,  coffee,  and  various  textile 
plants.  After  rubber,  the  most  important  export  is  ivory,  which 
is  obtained  from  large  herds  of  elephants  dwelling  in  different  parts 
of  the  region. 

The  Katanga,  which  forms  part  of  the  Congo-Zambesi  divide, 
is  at  present  attracting  considerable  attention  on  account  of  its 
great  mineral  wealth.  This  consists  principally  of  copper,  but  tin 
and  gold  are  also  obtained,  and  other  minerals  are  known  to  exist. 
The  Palaeozoic  rocks,  in  which  all  these  occur,  lie  at  an  elevation  of 
between  4,000  and  5,000  feet  above  sea-level,  in  a  region  which  is 
suitable  for  white  settlement,  though,  owing  to  its  remote  posi- 
tion, the  obstacles  in  the  way  of  its  exploitation  are  very  great. 
Labour  is  difficult  to  get ;  and  food  supplies  have  to  be  obtained 
from  Rhodesia  and  the  Cape,  as  the  Katanga  itself  is  not  an  agri- 
cultural region,  though  experimental  farms  have  recently  been 


WEST  AFRICA  353 

established  within  it.  The  want  of  fuel  on  the  spot  is  also  a  great 
drawback,  and  coal  has  to  be  imported  from  the  Wankie  field ; 
but  it  is  possible  that  power  may  be  obtained  in  the  future  by 
utiKsing  the  abundant  supplies  of  water  for  the  generation  of 
electricity.  At  present,  all  that  can  be  said  is  that  the  Katanga 
appears  to  be  rich  in  mineral  wealth,  that  it  is  practically  un- 
developed, and  that  its  development  will  be  a  slow  and  costly 
matter.  Elisabethville,  the  chief  town  on  it,  is  connected  with  the 
Cape-to-Cairo  railway  at  Broken  Hill  in  Northern  Rhodesia. 

Communications. — ^The  Congo  and  its  tributaries  offer  nearly 
7,000  miles  of  navigable  waterway  within  the  State,  and,  so  far, 
little  i^s  been  done  to  develop  other  means  of  communication. 
One  railway  has  been  constructed  between  Matadi  and  Leopold- 
ville  to  circumvent  the  series  of  rapids  by  which  the  Congo 
descends  from  the  plateau,  upon  which  it  flows,  to  its  estuary ; 
another  runs  from  Stanleyville  to  Ponthierville  to  avoid  the  Stanley 
Falls  ;  while  a  third  connects  Kindu  with  Kongolo.  It  is  pro- 
posed to  continue  the  line  from  Elisabethville  to  Bukama  on  the 
Lualaba,  so  that  there  may  be  continuous  rail  and  river 
communication  from  the  Katanga  to  the  Atlantic. 

Angola 

Angola,  which  is  the  largest  of  the  Portuguese  possessions,  has 
an  area  of  485,000  square  miles.  In  the  north  the  interior  of  the 
country  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Congo,  while  in  the  south  it 
forms  part  of  the  high  African  plateau.  Along  the  coast  runs  a 
plain  which  is  narrow  in  the  south,  but  in  the  north  has  a  breadth 
of  nearly  100  miles.  Each  of  these  regions  has  its  characteristic 
climate.  The  northern  interior  is  hot  at  all  seasons  of  the  year, 
though,  owing  to  its  greater  elevation  (1,500  to  3,000  feet)  and 
more  southerly  position,  it  is  less  so  than  the  Belgian  Congo.  The 
rainfall  is  over  40,  and  in  places  over  60,  inches  per  year.  On  the 
plateau,  which  has  an  elevation  of  3,000  to  5,000  feet,  and  especi- 
ally on  its  more  southerly  parts,  the  cHmate  is  said  to  be  healthy 
and  bracing,  and  much  of  it  is  believed  to  be  suitable  for  European 
settlement.  The  precipitation  is  less  than  in  the  north,  and  in 
the  extreme  south  the  annual  rainfall  does  not  amount  to  30 
inches.  Except  in  the  north,  on  either  side  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Congo,  the  coastal  plain  receives  comparatively  little  moisture. 


354  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

Round  Loanda  there  is  less  than  20  inches,  while,  further  south,  a 
considerable  area,  which  includes  the  western  slopes  of  the 
plateau,  has  less  than  10  inches.  Three  natural  regions  based  on 
these  considerations  may,  therefore,  be  recognised.  The  Congo 
basin  and  the  districts  on  either  side  of  its  estuary  are  covered 
with  tropical  forest,  the  plateau  is  a  savanna  land,  and  the  coastal 
plain  and  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  plateau  are  steppe-land  and 
desert. 

The  Congo  Basin. — ^The  chief  products  are  coffee  and  rubber.^ 
The  former  is  grown  in  plantations,  many  of  which  have  been  made 
by  thinning  out  superfluous  coffee  plants  in  those  districts  in  which 
they  were  found  growing  wild.  Rubber  is  obtained  both  from 
indigenous  trees  and  lianes,  and  from  plantations  in  which 
imported  varieties  of  Manihot  are  grown.  From  the  Kabinda, 
the  region  north  of  the  Congo,  come  palm  oil,  rubber,  and  ivory. 
The  Lunda  district  in  the  north-east  has  never  been  subdued  by 
the  Portuguese,  and  its  trade  is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  natives. 

The  Southern  Plateau,  with  its  favourable  climate  and  large 
areas  of  fertile  soil,  is  eminently  suited  for  European  civilisation, 
and  a  number  of  colonies  have  been  established  upon  it,  especially 
in  the  basin  of  the  Cunene  and  its  tributaries.  Cereals,  such  as 
wheat,  barley,  and  oats,  and  the  fruits  of  temperate  climes,  can 
all  be  grown,  and  some  attention  is  also  paid  to  cattle  raising. 
Further  east,  there  is  said  to  be  land  suitable  for  the  cultivation 
of  coffee,  cotton,  and  cacao,  but  this  part  of  the  country  is  still 
unsettled.  Rubber  is  collected  by  natives  from  a  variety  of  plants 
which  grow  upon  the  plateau. 

The  Coastal  Districts  are  generally  infertile,  except  where! 
irrigation  can  be  practised,  as  is  the  case  near  Benguella,  where 
there  are  sugar-cane  plantations  along  the  courses  of  several  minor 
rivers  flowing  down  from  the  plateau.  The  manufacture  of  rum, 
which  was  formerly  an  important  industry,  has  now  been  pro- 
hibited by  the  Government,  and  it  is  possible  that  more  sugar 
may  be  exported  in  the  future.  From  various  places  along  the 
coast,  fishing  is  engaged  in,  and  considerable  quantities  of  dried 
fish  are  exported  to  Europe.  The  principal  seaports  are  Loanda, 
which  owes  its  importance  to  the  facihties  offered  by  the  Quanza 
for  penetration  into  the  interior,  Lobito,  Benguella,  Mossamedes, 
and  Ambriz. 


WEST  AFRICA  355 

Communications,  Trade,  Etc. — ^Angola  is,  as  yet,  in  a  very 
undeveloped  state,  though  the  potentialities  of  the  country  are 
believed  to  be  great.  The  total  population  is  estimated  at 
4,000,000,  but  of  these  only  a  small  number  are  Europeans.  One 
great  drawback  is  the  inadequacy  of  the  existing  means  of  com- 
munication. The  principal  railway  is  that  which  starts  from 
Lobito  and  runs  across  the  plateau  with  the  object  of  eventually 
reaching  the  Katanga  mining  district  in  the  Belgian  Congo.  Of 
this  railway,  which  will  have  a  length  of  about  800  miles  in  Angola 
itself,  nearly  250  miles  have  up  to  the  present  been  constructed. 
Other  lines  run  from  Loanda  to  Malange,  and  from  Mossamedes  to 
Humpata. 

The  Islands  of  Sao  TnoMt  and  Principe,  which  also  belong 
to  Portugal,  are  included  within  the  Customs  union  of  Angola, 
although  they  form  a  separate  province.  Sao  Thom6,  which  Hes 
upon  the  equator,  is  entirely  of  igneous  formation  ;  and  its  soil 
and  climate  are  alike  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  cacao  plant, 
which  grows  on  the  hill  slopes  to  a  height  of  over  2,000  feet  above 
sea-level.  The  island  now  produces  about  15  per  cent,  of  the 
world's  supply  of  cacao.  The  work  on  the  plantations  is  carried 
on  by  negroes  imported  from  Angola. 


CHAPTER    XXXIV 

ISLANDS  LYING  OFF  THE  COAST  OF  AFRICA 

Madagascar  has  an  area  of  230,000  square  miles,  and  a  population 
of  3,200,000.  A  plateau,  which  occupies  the  central  part  of  the 
island  from  north  to  south,  slopes  down  steeply  to  the  east  and 
gently  to  the  west.  Climatic  conditions  vary  greatly  from  place 
to  place.  The  east  coast  is  exposed  to  the  south-east  trades  and 
receives  rain  at  all  seasons  of  the  year ;  the  plateau  is  hot  and 
damp  in  summer  but  cold  and  dry  in  winter ;  the  west  coast  is 
without  rain  during  the  winter  months.  The  east  of  the  island  is 
forested,  and  rubber,  both  wild  and  cultivated,  is  obtained ;  but 
owing  to  various  causes  the  output  is  tending  to  decrease.  On  the 
plateau,  where  the  gneissic  and  granitic  soils  are  infertile,  though 
perhaps  not  so  much  so  as  was  at  one  time  believed,  cattle-raising  is 
the  chief  pursuit  and  hides  are  exported.  Other  products  include 
raffia  fibre  and  tanning  bark,  and  within  the  last  few  years  some 
attention  has  been  paid  to  the  cultivation  of  manioc  and  the  rearing 
of  ostriches.  Gold  is  found  in  various  places,  and  coal  has  recently 
been  discovered  in  the  south.  The  trade  is  comparatively  small, 
and  for  the  years  1906-10  the  average  value  of  exports  and  imports 
combined  only  amounted  to  £2,500,000.  The  principal  ports  are 
Tamatave  and  Vohemar  on  the  east  coast,  Diego-Suarez  in  the  north, 
and  Majunga  on  the  west  coast. 

Reunion  ^ 

The  volcanic  island  of  Reunion  lies  to  the  east  of  Madagascar. 
It  has  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  78°F.  and  a  rainfall  of  over 
60  inches,  most  of  which  falls  between  December  and  April.  Sugar 
is  the  principal  product  of  the  island,  but  the  amount  grown  has 
greatly  declined  within  the  last  half  century.  Other  products 
include  Mauritius  hemp  [Furcraea  gigantea)  and  manioc.  Reunion 
is  a  French  possession. 

Mauritius 

This  island,  which  is  a  British  possession,  is  also  of  volcanic  origin. 
Climatic  conditions  are  somewhat  similar  to  those  in  Reunion. 

356 


ISLANDS  LYING  OFF  THE   COAST  OF  AFRICA  357 

Sugar  which  is  the  principal  product  is  exported  mainly  to  British 
India.  Mauritius  hemp  ranks  next  in  importance.  Port  Louis 
is  the  chief  seaport. 

North -West  African  Islands 

The  islands  off  the  north-west  coast  of  Africa  include  the  Azores, 
Madeira,  the  Canary  Islands,  and  the  Cape  Verde  Islands.  The  soil 
of  all  is  volcanic,  and  much  of  it  is  fertile.  The  Azores  have  a  mild 
and  temperate  climate  and  large  quantities  of  pineapples  are  raised 
under  glass  for  export  to  the  markets  of  London  and  Hamburg. 
Oranges  are  also  grown.  Madeira  with  an  excellent  climate  is 
engaged  in  various  agricultural  pursuits.  Wine,  butter,  and 
embroidery  are  among  the  principal  exports.  The  Canary  Islands 
are  almost  entirely  dependent  upon  bananas  and  tomatoes  for  their 
exports  abroad,  the  United  Kingdom  providing  the  chief  market 
for  both.  The  Cape  Verde  Islands  are  still  in  a  very  undeveloped 
condition.  The  chief  exports,  which  go  to  Lisbon,  are  coffee  and 
castor-oil  seeds.  The  Canary  Islands  are  Spanish,  but  the  others 
are  Portuguese. 


23— (1326) 


AMERICA 


CHAPTER  XXXV 

NORTH  AMERICA 

North  America,  which  may  be  considered  to  extend  as  far  south 
as  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  has  an  area,  exclusive  of  Greenland 
and  the  West  Indies,  of  a  Uttle  more  than  8,000,000  square  miles. 
It  therefore  contains  about  one-seventh  of  the  land  surface  of 
the  globe,  and  comes  third  in  the  hst  of  continents  according  to  size  ; 
it  is  about  twice  as  large  as  Europe,  and  has  an  extent  about 
sixty-six  times  that  of  the  British  Isles. 

Taking  into  consideration  the  geological  and  physical  features 
of  the  whole  continent,  several  main  physiographical  regions  may 
be  recognised.  The  first  of  these  is  the  Laurentian  Plateau.  If 
a  line  be  drawn  from  the  Arctic  Ocean,  east  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Mackenzie  River,  through  the  Great  Bear  and  the  Great  Slave 
Lakes  to  the  western  extremity  of  Lake  Athabasca,  and  from 
there  in  a  gentle  southward  curve  to  the  northern  end  of  Lake 
Winnipeg,  along  the  eastern  shore  of  that  lake,  and  then  southwards 
to  the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  eastwards  from  there  to  Lake  Superior, 
along  the  northern  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes  as  far  as  the  north- 
eastern extremity  of  Georgian  Bay,  and  from  there  at  a  varying 
distance  from  Lake  Ontario  and  the  St.  Lawrence  River  to  a  point 
on  that  river  a  few  miles  below  Quebec,  it  will  mark  off  the  old 
Archaean  nucleus  about  which  the  rest  of  the  continent  has  grown 
up.  This  Laurentian  region  consists  of  an  old  mountain  mass, 
whose  height  has  been  reduced  by  weathering  and  glacial  action  so 
that  it  now  presents  the  appearance  of  a  roughened  plateau  with 
an  average  elevation  in  the  east  of  1,500  to  1,600  feet,  though  in 
the  west  it  is  somewhat  lower. 

From  the  St.  Lawrence,  there  runs  in  a  south-westerly  direction 
an  elevated  region  known  as  the  Appalachian  Highland,  which  may 
be  divided  longitudinally  into  four  belts  parallel  to  one  another. 
The  first  of  these  belts,  the  Piedmont  Plateau,  stretches  from 
central  Alabama  to  New  York  with  a  width  varying  from  60 
miles  in  the  north  and  south  to  150  miles  in  the  centre,  and  it  also 
reappears  in  the  east  of  New  England.  On  the  south-east,  where 
it  adjoins  the  coastal  plain,  it  has  an  elevation  of  250  to  300  feet, 

361 


362  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

but  on  the  north-west,  along  its  junction  with  the  second  belt,  it 
rises  to  1,000  feet  above  sea-level.  This  second  belt  is  a  mountain 
range,  highest  in  New  Hampshire  and  in  North  Carolina,  formed 
of  the  same  hard  and  resistant  rock  as  the  Piedmont  Plateau.  In 
Virginia  it  is  known  as  the  Blue  Ridge,  while  in  New  England  it 
forms  the  Berkshire  Hills  of  Massachusetts  and  the  Green  Hills  of 
Vermont.  The  third  belt,  the  Great  Appalachian  Valley,  stretch- 
ing from  the  St.  Lawrence  to  Alabama,  with  an  average  breadth  of 
about  seventy-five  miles,  is  a  region  of  relative  depression  carved 
out  of  softer  Palaeozoic  rocks,  though  within  it  are  many  short 
ranges  running  parallel  to  one  another.  In  the  north  it  is  occupied 
by  Lake  Champlain  and  the  Hudson,  and  further  south  by  the 
Shenandoah  and  the  upper  waters  of  the  James  and  the  Tennessee. 
The  western  boundary  of  this  belt  is  formed  by  the  escarpments 
of  the  Allegheny  and  Cumberland  plateaus,  of  more  or  less  horizontal 
Palaeozoic  strata,  which  slope  away  towards  Lake  Erie,  the 
lower  Ohio,  and  the  lower  Tennessee.  These  upland  regions  vary 
in  height ;  in  Pennsylvania  they  do  not  exceed  2,000  feet,  but  in 
Kentucky  and  West  Virginia  they  have  an  elevation  of  3,000  to 
4,000  feet. 

Between  the  Piedmont  Plateau  and  the  Atlantic,  there  is  a  low 
coastal  plain  which  sweeps  round  the  southern  end  of  the  Appala- 
chian system,  and,  skirting  the  Allegheny  Plateau,  extends  north- 
ward as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Ohio.  On  the  west  its  boundary 
touches  the  Ozark  uplift,  and  then  runs  in  a  south-westerly  direc- 
tion to  the  Rio  Grande  Del  Norte.  This  region,  which  may  be  called 
the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coastal  Plain,  slopes  upwards  from  the  shore, 
but  seldom  exceeds  a  height  of  300  feet  on  its  inland  margin.  It  is 
of  recent  formation,  and  consists  of  weak  and  unconsolidated! 
rocks,  usually  covered  with  deep  and  fertile  soil.  ' 

From  the  Laurentian  Plateau  and  the  Appalachian  Highland  on 
the  east  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  on  the  west,  and  from  the  Arctic 
Ocean  in  the  north  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  in  the  south,  there  stretch 
the  great  Continental  Plains  of  which  the  Gulf  Coastal  Plain  forms 
the  southern  part.  The  character  of  this  continental  interior  varies 
considerably  throughout,  and  several  important  subdivisions  must 
be  recognised.  The  sub-Arctic  Plain,  around^the  shores  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean  and  along  the  lower  course  of  the  Mackenzie  River, 
corresponds  generally  in  configuration  and  altitude  with  the  Gulf 


NORTH   AMERICA  363 

Plain,  and  on  the  south  gradually  merges  into  the  Great  Plateaus.  In 
the  east  of  the  Continental  Basin  the  altitudes  are  low  and  the  plains 
are  either  flat  or  gently  rolling,  while  in  the  west  they  rise  by  degrees 
to  a  height  of  5,000  feet  along  the  foot  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
As  these  two  regions — ^the  Prairie  Plains  and  the  Great  Plateaus — 
gradually  merge  into  one  another,  it  is  difficult  to  draw  exactly  the 
dividing  line  between  them  ;  but  it  may  be  taken  roughly  as  follow- 
ing the  Missouri  Coteau  in  Canada,  and  in  the  United  States  as 
separating  eastern  and  western  North  and  South  Dakota,  eastern 
and  central  Nebraska  and  Kansas,  and  eastern  and  western  Texas. 
To  the  east  of  this  line,  however,  there  are  two.jpegions  which 
cannot  properly  be  included  within  the  Prairie  Plains,  one  being 
the  Ozark  uplift,  and  the  other  the  Lake  Plains,  a  region  lying  to 
the  south  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  formerly  covered  by  them. 

The  Western  Cordillera  is  the  last  great  physical  region  of 
North  America ;  its  structure  is  very  complicated,  and  only  its 
salient  features  can  be  mentioned  here.  In  the  north,  bordered 
by  mountain  ranges,  there  is  an  undulating  plateau  country  which 
forms  the  basin  of  the  Yukon.  Further  south,  besides  the  Rocky 
Mountains  proper  there  are,  in  the  east,  the  Selkirks  and  the  Gold 
Range,  between  the  last  of  which  and  the  coastal  mountains — 
the  Northern  Cascades — ^lies  the  interior  plateau  of  British  Columbia. 
South  of  the  international  boundary,  the  term  Rocky  Mountains 
is  generally  apphed  to  the  wide  stretch  of  country  extending 
from  the  western  margin  of  the  Great  Plateaus  in  the  east  to  the 
Wahsatch  Mountains  in  the  west.  Over  this  tract  there  are 
many  ranges  running  north  and  south,  with  great  intervening 
valleys  known  as  parks.  To  the  north-west  of  it  lies  the 
Columbia  Plateau,  which  has  been  built  up  by  volcanic  outpourings 
filling  the  depressions  between  the  Rocky  Mountain  system  and 
the  Southern  Cascades ;  to  the  south  of  it  there  is  the  Colorado 
Plateau,  an  elevated  region  composed  of  horizontal  rock  in  which 
deep  canons  have  been  cut  by  the  Colorado  and  its  tributaries. 
Between  the  Wahsatch  Mountains  and  the  Colorado  Plateau  in 
the  east  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  in  the  west,  lies  the  Great  Basin, 
a  region  of  inland  drainage  with  a  general  elevation  of  5,000  feet, 
and  with  many  short  ranges  running  across  it  from  north  to  south. 
The  general  characteristics  of  this  region  are  preserved  in  the  country 
to  the  south  of  the  Colorado  Plateau,  though  there  the  drainage  is 


364  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

to  the  sea,  and  in  the  Mexican  Plateau,  where  many  of  the  basins 
are  again  closed.  To  the  west  of  the  Southern  Cascades  and  the 
Sierra  Nevada  lies  a  series  of  coastal  ranges,  with  the  Puget  Sound 
valley  and  the  California  valley  intervening. 

Mexico  is  the  southern  continuation  of  the  Cordilleran  system. 
Two  great  ranges,  the  Sierra  Madre  Oriental  and  the  Sierra  Madre 
Occidental,  whose  precise  relationship  with  the  Rocky  Mountain 
system  has  not  yet  been  definitely  determined,  border  the  country 
on  the  east  and  west  respectively,  while  the  intervening  region  is 
a  plateau  which  rises  from  a  height  of  about  4,000  feet  on  the 
United  States  boundary  to  over  8,000  feet  in  the  south.  This 
plateau  has  been  built  up  in  part  by  the  debris  from  the  surrounding 
mountains,  and  in  part  by  discharges  from  the  volcanoes  which 
form  so  prominent  a  feature  in  the  topography  of  the  country. 

Climate. — A  comparison  and  study  of  the  position  of  the  iso- 
thermal lines  for  January  and  July  throw  a  considerable  amount 
of  light  upon  the  general  conditions  which  determine  the  tempera- 
ture of  North  America.  In  January  the  isotherms,  outside  of  the 
tropics,  trend  from  north-west  to  south-east  with  a  curve  to  the 
south ;  in  July,  over  a  great  part  of  the  continent,  they  run  in  a  some- 
what similar  direction,  but  in  the  west  they  bend  towards  the  north 
and  are  crowded  together  along  the  Pacific  coast,  to  which  they  run 
almost  parallel  for  considerable  distances,  and  which  they  leave  in 
lower  latitudes  than  those  in  which  they  enter  along  the  Atlantic. 
In  the  winter  months  the  land  is  much  colder  than  the  sea,  and  there 
is  a  decrease  in  temperature  along  the  parallels  of  latitude  with  an 
increase  in  distance  from  the  coast.  Further,  as  there  is  during 
the  winter  months  a  high  pressure  area  over  the  land,  the  winds 
blow  outwards  towards  the  sea,  especially  on  the  east  coast,  as 
far  south  as  the  twenty-fifth  parallel.  As  these  winds,  blowing  from 
the  west  and  north-west,  are  cold,  the  temperature  of  the  eastern 
shores  of  Canada  and  the  United  States  is  greatly  reduced  by  them. 
The  west  coast,  on  the  other  hand,  is  protected  from  cold  land  winds 
by  the  Western  Cordillera,  and  the  prevailing  winds  in  higher 
latitudes  are  those  blowing  from  the  tropic  high  pressure  belt,  which 
extends  across  the  Pacific  ocean,  and  which  at  this  time  of  the 
year  lies  well  to  the  south.  These  south-westerly  and  westerly 
winds,  having  come  from  the^south  and  having  blown  over  the 
Pacific,  are  relatively  warm,  and  have  a  moderating  effect  upon 


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RAINFALL   OF   NORTH   AMERICA 


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366  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

the  climate  of  the  west  coast.  South  of  about  the  twenty-fifth 
parallel,  the  country  lies  within  the  belt  of  constant  trade  winds, 
the  land  mass  is  comparatively  narrow,  and  the  isotherms  tend  to 
follow  the  parallels  of  latitude. 

In  summer,  the  heat  equator  has  moved  northwards,  the  land  is 
much  warmer  than  the  sea,  there  is  an  area  of  low  pressure  over 
the  continent,  and  the  winds  move  inland  from  the  sea.  On  the 
east  coast,  in  higher  latitudes,  they  tend  to  blow  from  the  south 
and  south-west.  In  lower  latitudes  the  trade  winds  have  been 
sucked  in  from  their  usual  course  by  the  continental  low  pressure 
area.  On  the  west  coast,  in  higher  latitudes,  winds  from  the  west 
and  south-west  are  blowing,  and  these  exercise  a  cooling  influence 
which  prevents  the  range  between  summer  and  winter  temperatures 
from  being  great.  In  lower  latitudes  the  trade  winds  blow 
off-shore,  except  in  the  extreme  south  where  monsoon  conditions 
prevail,  the  trade  winds  of  the  southern  hemisphere  having  been 
pulled  across  the  equator. 

As  a  result  of  these  various  atmospheric  conditions,  the  tempera- 
ture along  the  coast  is  much  lower  than  in  the  interior  along  the  same 
parallels  of  latitude.  The  greatest  extension  northward  of  the 
isotherms  is  in  the  western  part  of  the  continental  interior, 
where  the  influence  of  sea  winds  is  least  felt,  and  where  the 
dryness  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  barrenness  of  the  land  lead 
to  very  high  temperatures. 

North  America  may  therefore  be  divided  into  several  regions  as 
far  as  temperature  alone  is  concerned.  The  Arctic  lands  in  the 
north  have  very  long,  cold  winters,  and  short  and  cool  summers. 
Thg^-^astern  parts  of  Canada  and  the  United  States  have  winters 
which  are  cold  in  the  north  but  cool  in  the  south,  and  warm  along  the 
Gulf  coast ;  and  summers  which  are  warm  in  the  north,  but  become 
hot  in  the  south  and  around  the  Gulf.  The  great  interior  region 
has,  on  the  whole,  a  more  extreme  climate,  varymg,  however, 
according  to  latitude.  The  winters  in  central  Canada  and  in  the 
northern  States  are  very  cold,  while  the  summers  are  warm.  Further 
south  the  cold  of  winter  is  seldom  so  great,  but  the  heat  of  summer 
is  more  intense.  Alnn^thp  T^^r^^^  rVlf^'it  the  climate  is  more  equable 
than  in  any  other  part  of  North  America  outside  of  the  tropics. 

The  rainfall  of  North  America  occurs  chiefly  during  the  summer 
months.     At  this  period  of  the  year  a  low  pressure  area,  running 


NORTH  AMERICA  367 

north  and  south,  has  developed  over  the  interior  of  the  continent, 
while  high  pressure  areas  have  spread  northward  over  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Pacific.  The  moist  air  is  therefore  sucked  inwards  into  the 
very  heart  of  the  continent,  and  precipitation  takes  place  as  a  result 
of  cooling  caused  partly  by  increasing  altitude,  but  chiefly  by  the 
expansion  and  uprising  of  the  air  in  the  hot  continental  interior. 
The  Atlantic  trade  winds,  moreover,  are,  to  some  extent,  drawn  out 
of  their  usual  course  by  the  low-pressure  area  over  the  land  at 
this  season,  and  a  heavy  monsoonal  rainfall  takes  place  along 
the  southern  part  of  the  Atlantic  coastal  plain,  around  the  Gulf, 
and  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  mountains  of  Mexico.  On  the 
west  coast  there  is  a  heavy  rainfall  as  far  south  as  Vancouver, 
brought  by  the  north-westerly  winds  from  the  Pacific  high  pressure 
area,  but  further  south  the  winds  contain  Uttle  moisture,  and,  as 
temperature  increases  rapidly  inland,  there  is  no  precipitation. 
On  the  west  coast  of  Mexico,  however,  there  is  a  heavy  monsoonal 
rainfall  due  to  the  trade  winds  of  the  south  Pacific  being  pulled  across 
the  equator  and  turned  to  the  right. 

During  the  winter  months  the  high  pressure  area  over  the  con- 
tinent causes  the  winds  to  blow  outward.  In  the  east,  the  heaviest 
rainfall  is  along  the  south  part  of  the  Atlantic  coastal  plain  and 
round  the  Gulf,  where,  owing  to  the  relatively  high  temperature, 
there  is  a  considerable  amount  of  water  vapour  in  the  atmosphere, 
which  is  drawn  inland  by  local  storms  and  precipitated.  To  the 
Mexican  coast,  also,  the  trade  winds  bring  a  considerable  amount  of 
rainfall.  On  the  Pacific  coast,  precipitation  is  heavy  as  far  south 
as  San  Francisco,  the  heat  equator  having  moved  southwards  and 
the  whole  region  being  brought  within  the  influence  of  the  south- 
westerly winds.  Between  Vancouver  and  San  Francisco  precipita- 
tion takes  place  only  during  the  autumn  and  winter  months,  but 
south  of  the  latter  place  the  winds  are  off-shore,  and  the  surrounding 
region  is  as  dry  in  winter  as  it  is  in  summer. 

The  annual  distribution  of  precipitation  over  North  America  as 
determined  by  these  conditions  is  somewhat  as  follows  :  the  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  Coastal  Plains  and  the  interior  of  the  country  as  far 
north  as  the  fortieth  parallel  and  as  far  west  as  the  ninety-fifth 
meridian  (with  the  exception  of  the  north-west  comer  of  this  region), 
have  a  rainfall  of  between  40  and  60  inches  per  year,  except 
around,  and  for  some  distance  east  of,  the  Mississippi  delta  where 


368  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

the  latter  amount  is  exceeded.  The  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  St  Law- 
rence, and  the  country  south  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  east  of  a  hne 
running  from  their  western  extremity  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  have  at 
least  30  inches  annually.  A  third  region  is  that  which  lies  to  the 
south  of  Hudson  Bay  and  east  of  a  line  which  oscillates  between 
the  95th  and  100th  meridians,  and  over  which  the  mean  annual 
precipitation  is  between  20  and  30  inches ;  this  amount  is  also 
received  by  a  great  part  of  the  Mexican  Plateau,  especially  in  the 
south.  On  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Mexican  tableland,  the  pre- 
cipitation is  much  greater,  and  rises  in  places  to  over  80  inches 
per  year.  On  the  Pacific  coast  there  is  a  heavy  rainfall  which, 
as  a  rule,  does  not  extend  far  inland,  except  in  the  Puget  Sound 
region.  Along  the  coast  from  Sitka  to  Vancouver  it  is  over  80 
inches  per  year,  and  as  far  south  as  San  Francisco  there  are  at  least 
40  inches.  The  greater  part  of  the  western  slope  of  Mexico  has  at 
least  20  inches,  while  a  more  restricted  coastal  strip  has  over 
40  inches.  Over  the  remainder  of  North  America  the  total  precipi- 
tation falls  between  10  and  20  inches  annually  except  in  two  regions. 
The  first  of  these  is  in  the  extreme  north  of  Canada,  where  a  tri- 
angular area,with  its  base  along  the  Arctic  shores,  receives  less  than 
10  inches  ;  and  the  second,  which  receives  a  like  amount,  is  situated 
in  the  south-west  of  the  United  States  and  the  north-west  of  Mexico. 
The  first  region  lies  in  an  area  of  constant  high  pressure,  while 
the  second  lies  on  the  west  side  of  a  continent  within  the  belt 
of  constant  trade  winds. 

Vegetation. — In  this  section  the  natural  vegetation  regions  of 
the  continent  will  alone  be  described,  changes  introduced  by  man, 
such  as  the  substitution  of  agricultural  land  for  woodland,  being 
deferred  until  later. 

The  forests  of  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  slopes  differ  greatly  in 
their  essential  characteristics,  the  result  of  differences  both  in 
their  past  and  present  climatic  environment ;  but  they  are  connected 
by  a  great  belt  of  woodland  called  the  Northern  Forest,  which 
stretches  across  the  continent  from  the  one  ocean  to  the  other. 
Its  northern  boundary  is  coincident  with  the  limit  of  tree  growth, 
which  runs  along  the  coast  of  Labrador  near  the  sixtieth  parallel, 
across  north-west  Canada  from  the  mouth  of  the  Churchill  to  that 
of  the  Mackenzie,  and  along  the  north-eastern  and  north-western 
slopes  of  Alaska.      The  southern  limit  on  the  Atlantic  coast  may 


NORTH  AMERICA  369 

be  taken  as  the  fiftieth  parallel,  and  on  the  Pacific  as  the  fifty-eighth. 
On  these  coasts  the  Northern  Forest  gradually  merges  into  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Forests  respectively;  on  the  south-west  it  is 
limited  by  drought,  and  on  the  north  by  high  winds  during  cold 
weather.  The  characteristic  trees  are  the  black  and  the  white 
spruce,  but  the  pine,  larch,  birch,  and  poplar  are  also  found.  This 
forest  is  not  of  great  value  ;  the  trees  grow  in  open  formation,  and, 
owing  to  the  shortness  and  low  temperature  of  the  vegetative  season, 
seldom  reach  a  considerable  size.  On  the  southern  margin  some 
are  suitable  for  timber,  but  over  the  greater  part  of  the  area  they  are 
at  best  fit  only  for  pulp.  The  Northern  Pine  Belt  is  the  continuation 
to  the  south,  on  the  Atlantic  side,  of  the  Northern  Forest.  It 
extends  inland  as  far  as  the  ninety-sixth  meridian,  and  runs  south- 
wards along  the  coast  to  the  fortieth,  and  along  the  higher  parts  of 
the  Appalachians  to  the  thirty-seventh  parallel ;  west  of  these 
mountains  it  does  not  extend  beyond  the  forty-third  parallel, 
where  it  merges  into  the  deciduous  Mississippi  Forest.  The  white 
pine  is  the  characteristic,  and  perhaps  the  most  valuable  tree  of 
the  region,  while  the  black  spruce,  sugar  maple,  birch,  and  cedar 
are  all  extensively  found. 

South  of  the  thirty-sixth  parallel,  the  Southern  Maritime  Pine 
Belt  extends  along  the  Atlantic  coast  with  a  breadth  varying  from 
100  to  200  miles,  crosses  over  the  Florida  peninsula,  and  stretches 
along  the  Gulf  coast  as  far  as  the  flood  plains  of  the  Mississippi ;  it 
reappears  in  Louisiana  over  a  small  area,  but  gradually  merges 
into  the  deciduous  Mississippi  Forest.  The  characteristic  tree  of 
this  region  is  the  long-leaved  pine  {Pinus  palustris) ,  and  the  southern 
cypress  is  also  extensively  found.  The  first  of  these  trees,  although 
coniferous,  requires  a  somewhat  warmer  climate  than  the  white 
pine,  and  is  usually  found  on  drier  soils  ;  the  cypress,  on  the 
contrary,  generally  grows  in  swampy  localities  and  near  the 
coast. 

The  Deciduous  Forest  of  the  Mississippi  basin  and  the  Atlantic 
coast  extends  inland  from  the  Atlantic  coast  between  the  thirty- 
sixth  and  fortieth  parallels,  and  northwards  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ; 
it  covers  all  the  country,  not  already  described,  east  of  the  lower 
Mississippi,  and  of  a  line  drawn  from  its  confluence  with  the  Ohio 
to  the  southern  extremity  of  Lake  Michigan,  together  with  the 
trans-Mississippi  states  of  Arkansas,  Missouri,  and  Louisiana,  and 


370  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

parts  of  Texas  and  Indian  Territory.  The  characteristic  trees  of 
this  region,  with  its  high  summer  temperatures,  are  the  broad-leaved 
summer-green  trees,  such  as  chestnuts,  oaks,  hickories,  walnuts, 
and  tulip  trees. 

On  the  Pacific  coast  the  Northern  Forest  extends  south  as  far 
as  the  fifty-eighth  parallel.  Here  begins  the  Pacific  Coast  Forest 
which  runs  southwards  in  a  narrow  strip  to  the  fiftieth  parallel, 
where  it  extends  inland  and  embraces  the  region  of  heavy  rainfall 
around  Puget  Sound.  South  of  it,  the  Coast  Forest  covers  the 
well-watered  mountain  slopes,  as  far  inland  as  the  crests  of  the  Cas- 
cades and  Sierra  Nevada,  and  as  far  south  as  the  thirty-fifth  parallel, 
beyond  which  it  runs  along  the  high  ridges  of  the  southern  Coast 
Range  to  the  boundary  of  the  United  States.  This  forest  is  com- 
posed chiefly  of  coniferous  trees  ;  in  the  north  there  are  the  Alaska 
cedar,  the  tide-land  spruce,  and  the  hemlock  ;  south  of  latitude  54*  i 
the  red  fir  appears  and  is  the  most  characteristic  tree  of  the  coastal 
region  as  far  as  latitude  43° ;  in  the  interior  the  yellow  pine  is 
the  principal  tree,  but  the  red  fir,  the  hemlock,  and  the  red 
cedar  are  still  important.  In  California  the  chief  trees  are  the 
redwood  and  the  red  fir  along  the  coast  ranges,  the  sequoia,  the 
sugar  pine,  the  red  fir,  and  the  yellow  pine  along  the  Sierra  Nevada 
at  an  elevation  of  4,000  to  8,000  feet,  and  oaks  in  the  valleys 
between. 

The  Interior  Forest  includes  all  the  wooded  areas  between  the 
extreme  east  of  the  Coast  Forest  and  the  eastern  crests  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  between  the  Northern  Forest  and  Mexico.  This 
forest  is  thin  and  poor,  when  compared  with  that  along  the  coast, 
and  is  found  on  high  mountain  slopes  which  catch  the  rain,  and 
along  the  river  courses.  On  the  east  of  the  Sierras  and  Cascades, 
and  on  the  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  especially  in  the  south, 
there  is  to  be  found  mountain  mahogany,  yellow  pine,  spruce,  and 
white  pine. 

The  unforested  areas  of  North  America  fall  into  three  main 
groups — ^the  tundras,  the  grasslands,  and  the  deserts  and  semi- 
deserts.  The  tundras  lie  to  the  north  of  the  limits  of  tree  growth, 
and  in  Canada  are  generally  known  as  the  Barren  Grounds.  The 
extremely  short  vegetative  season,  after  the  snow  has  melted  and 
the  ground  has  thawed,  prevents  the  development  of  higher  forms 
of  plant  Hfe,  and  mosses  and  lichens  are  the  dominant  species. 

V 


NORTH  AMERICA  371 

Under  favourable  conditions  there  are  also  many  shallow  rooted 
plants  and  berry  bearing  bushes,  all  forming  a  continuous  covering, 
but  elsewhere  large  tracts  are  bare. 

The  grasslands  cover  a  much  more  extensive  area,  occupying 
the  whole  country  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  Forests. 
Two  distinct  types  must,  however,  be  recognised.  A  large 
region,  which  lies  east  of  the  line  separating  the  Prairie  Plains  and 
the  Great  Plateaus  of  North  America,  and  west  of  the  Atlantic 
forests  as  already  described,  as  well  as  the  northern  part  of  the 
unforested  area  belonging  to  the  Canadian  section  of  the  Great 
Plateaus,  consist  of  mixed  woodland  and  grassland,  the  latter 
predominating.  This  is  the  debatable  area  between  woodland  and 
grassland.  The  rainfall  is  sufficient  for  the  former,  and  it  is  believed, 
indeed,  that  the  whole  prairie  region  was  at  one  time  forested, 
but  that,  the  trees  being  once  destroyed,  grass  obtained 
the  mastery  owing  to  the  fine  adjustment  of  climatic  and  edaphic 
conditions.  Whatever  be  the  true  solution  of  this  question,  and  it 
has  been  the  subject  of  much  controversy,  the  region  under  con- 
sideration now  forms  the  greatest  natural  meadow  in  the  world, 
the  grasses  growing  in  close  formation.  To  the  west  of  it,  the 
country  is  an  original  steppe,  except  along  the  valleys  of  the  rivers, 
where  trees  are  sometimes  found.  From  east  to  west  this  steppe 
becomes  more  xerophilous  in  character ;  in  the  east  it  approaches 
meadow,  and  in  the  west  desert,  the  controlling  factor  being  the 
increasing  scarcity  of  moisture. 

Large  areas  in  Oregon  and  Idaho,  Nevada,  Utah,  Arizona,  and 
New  Mexico  are  unforested,  and  over  the  greater  part  of  this  region 
sage  bush,  which  covers  hundreds  of  thousands  of  square  miles,  is 
the  prevailing  vegetation.  It  is  here  that  there  is  a  nearer  approach 
to  desert  conditions  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  United  States. 
Further  south  these  same  conditions  extend  over  Lower  CaUfomia 
and  a  considerable  part  of  the  Mexican  plateau. 

Natural  Regions  of  North  America.  Canada. — As  the 
greater  part  of  Canada  east  of  the  Cordillera  drains  into  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence,  Hudson  Bay,  and  the  Arctic  Ocean,  while  the 
corresponding  part  of  the  United  States  drains  into  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  there  is  some  justification  for  seeking  a 
division  of  North  America  into  natural  regions  which  do  not  violate 
international  boundaries. 


372  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

The  Laurentian  Plateau  is  clearly  marked  oft  from  the  remainder 
of  Canada.  The  Archaean  rocks  of  which  it  is  composed,  the 
character  of  its  topography,  the  poor  and  scanty  soil  which  covers 
it,  and  its  climate  which  is  typically  that  of  the  high  latitudes  of 
the  eastern  part  of  a  great  land  mass,  all  separate  it  from  surrounding 
regions.  Over  so  great  an  area  temperature  and  rainfall  naturally 
vary,  and  it  embraces  part  of  two  vegetation  zones,  but  the  dominat- 
ing geological,  topographical,  and  climatic  facts  constitute  it  one 
natural  region  which  may  be  subdivided. 

The  Maritime  Provinces  form  a  natural  region  for  somewhat 
different  reasons.  They  do  not  belong  to  the  Laurentian  region, 
and  are  separated  by  the  Appalachian  uplift  from  the  more  recently 
formed  lands  of  the  continent.  Their  geological  structure  is  varied, 
but  is  largely  carboniferous,  the  soil  is  good  in  places,  and  the 
climate  is  less  extreme  than  on  the  Laurentian  Plateau,  or  even 
in  the  St.  Lawrence  valley.  Their  position  gives  them  a  certain 
unity,  and  makes  them  Canadian  rather  than  American  ;  their 
ports  are  Canadian  ports  giving  access  to  the  Canadian  interior  ; 
and  their  economic  conditions  are  different  from  those  of  the  New 
England  States  farther  south. 

The  third  region  comprises  the  lowlands  on  both  sides  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  between  the  Laurentian  Plateau  on  the  north  and 
the  Appalachian  mountains  on  the  south,  and  the  Ontario  peninsula 
may  also  be  included  within  it.  The  whole  of  this  region  is  over- 
lain with  glacial  debris  or  river  deposits,  and  it  is  relatively  flat, 
fertile,  and  suitable  for  cultivation.  Its  climate  is  intermediate 
between  that  of  the  maritime  provinces  and  that  of  the  continental 
interior,  and  many  of  its  products  occur  throughout  the  whole 
region.  The  St.  Lawrence  is  one  of  the  most  important  factors  in  its 
economic  development,  and  binds  its  various  parts  together. 

The  next  region,  which  may  be  called  the  Winnipeg  Basin,  lies  east 
of  the  Cordillera  and  west  of  the  Laurentian  Plateau.  Its  northern 
boundary  may  be  provisionally  defined  as  lying  in  the  belt  of 
country,  north  of  the  54th  parallel,  which  separates  the  agricultural 
regions  of  central  Canada  from  those  regions  further  north  where, 
because  of  the  lack  of  a  sufficiently  long  summer,  cultivation  is 
impossible  except  in  specially  favoured  localities.  The  whole  of  I 
this  area  has  been  covered  with  glacial  drift  or  has  formed  the  floor  ] 
of  glacial  lakes.     Its  topography  is  flat  in  the  east,  undulating  in  ; 


NORTH  AMERICA  373 

the  west,  and  hilly  only  in  places.  Its  climate  is  extreme,  its 
rainfall  limited,  and  its  vegetation  is  that  of  an  unforested  or  only 
slightly  forested  country.  North  of  the  intermediate  belt,  lie  the 
Athabasca-Mackenzie  Plains  with  their  generally  flat  physical 
features,  their  cold  winters  but  fairly  warm  summers,  and  their 
forest  vegetation. 

In  the  Cordilleran  region  physical  features  form  the  best  basis  for 
the  division  of  the  country  into  natural  regions.  In  the  north 
is  the  basin  of  the  Yukon  with  its  low  temperatiure,  scanty  vege- 
tation, and  great  mineral  wealth.  Further  south  is  the  interior 
plateau  of  British  Columbia,  bordered  by  high  mountains,  and 
separated  from  the  Yukon  in  the  north  and  the  Columbia  plateau 
in  the  south  by  the  coalescence  of  irregular  ranges.  The  tempera- 
ture is  higher  than  in  the  Yukon,  the  rainfall  is  greater  than  south 
of  the  international  boundary,  and,  although  the  region  is  not 
homogeneous,  it  may  for  present  purposes  be  treated  as  one. 

The  United  States. — ^The  New  England  States,  which  belong 
to  the  northern  part  of  the  Appalachian  system,  form  a  natural 
region.  They  consist  of  a  glaciated  peneplain  from  which  much 
of  the  soil  has  been  removed,  and  over  which  great  glacial  blocks 
render  cultivation  difficult.  They  are  isolated  from  the  remainder 
of  the  continent,  and  communication  with  the  interior  is  greatly 
impeded.  The  inhabitants  eventually  found  agriculture  unprofit- 
able, and  turned  to  manufactures,  finding  a  source  of  power  in  the 
waters  descending  glacial-dammed  valleys. 

The  Middle  Appalachian  States,  with  the  corresponding  part 
of  the  coastal  plain,  really  form  a  unit  despite  differences  in  topo- 
graphy, climate,  and  products.  Their  position  with  regard  to  the 
ocean  and  the  interior,  their  communications,  and  above  all  their 
great  coal  supplies,  knit  them  together  and  make  them  the  great 
manufacturing  region  of  the  United  States. 

The  Southern  Appalachians  differ  in  structure  in  some  respects 
from  the  Northern.  They  possess  both  coal  and  iron,  and 
their  position  in  relation  to  the  great  cotton-growing  region  of 
the  United  States  is  leading  to  a  distinct  type  of  economic 
development. 

To  the  west  of  the  northern  part  of  the  Appalachians  is  the 
glaciated  area  of  the  central  plains.  The  Laurentian  ice-sheet  made 
its  way  southwards  during  glacial  times,  entered  what  is  now  the 


374  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

United  States,  and  covered  all  the  area  east  of  the  Missouri  and 
north  of  a  Hne  drawn  from  Nashville,  by  way  of  Philadelphia,  to 
New  York.    Over  the  central  plains  the  till  deposited  by  the  ice- 
sheet  generally  forms  a  fertile  soil,  the  land  is  flat,  and,  outside  of  j 
the  forested  area  easily  cultivated ;   the  cUmate,  cold  in  winter,  isi 
warm  in  summer,  and  the  rainfall  is  sufi&cient  for  the  growth  of  wheat 
and  maize.     All  these  conditions  mark  this  area  out  as  the  great 
agricultural  region  of  the  United  States.      Along  with  it  may  be  I 
included  the  remainder  of  the  prairie  region  north  of  the  Ozark  uplift. 

The  Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coastal  Plains,  along  with  which  that  j 
part  of  the  prairie  belt  south  of  the  Ozark  uplift  may  be  included 
for  the  sake  of  convenience,  are  destined  by  cUmatic  conditions  to  j 
be  the  great  cotton-producing  region  of  the  United  States.  Their  j 
economic  development  differs  in  many  respects  from  other  parts  of ; 
the  country,  and  these  differences  are  primarily  due  to  the  nature] 
of  the  geographic  control. 

The  Great  Plateaus  are  marked  out  by  physical  features,  climate,  j 
and  vegetation  as  one  large  natural  region.  Their  undulating 
surface,  considerable  elevation,  dry  climate,  and  xerophilousj 
vegetation  combine  to  distinguish  them  from  the  regions 
further  to  the  east.  Within  so  great  an  area  there  are 
naturally  considerable  differences,  but  with  certain  exceptions, 
to  be  noted  later,  the  general  character  of  the  country  remains] 
the  same  throughout. 

As  in  Canada,  so  also  in  the  United  States,  the  Cordilleras  are  most! 
conveniently  divided  into  natural  regions  determined  by  physical] 
features.    The  Columbia  plateau,  built  up  of  lava  outpourings,] 
receives  but  a  small  rainfall,  and  a  large  part  is  semi-desert  covered! 
with  sage  bush.     The  soil,  however,  is  fertile,  and  when  water  can 
be  obtained  large   crops   are   produced.    The   Rocky   Mountainj 
region  presents  a  much  less  desert-like   appearance.    The    tope 
graphy  is  more  varied,  the  rainfall  greater,  and  the  vegetation 
richer.    The  hill-tops  are  bare,  but  the  lower  slopes  are  well  forested 
and  the  parks  grass-covered.    The  Great  Basin  differs  in  physical 
structure  and  climate  from  surrounding  areas.    The  region  is  largely 
semi-desert,  but  in  places  there  are  faciUties  for  irrigation,  and 
the  soil  is  fertile.    The  Colorado  Plateau  is  in  the  desert  part  of 
the    United    States.    Physical    configuration,    soil,    and    climate 
all  make  the  region  one  in  which  very  little    economic  activity 


NORTH  AMERICA  375 

is  possible.  The  Pacific  Slope  is  distinguished  from  the  remainder 
of  the  Western  Cordillera  by  its  physical  configuration,  its  coastal 
position,  its  heavier  rainfall,  its  slight  range  of  temperature,  and 
its  richer  vegetation.  As  in  some  of  the  previous  regions  several 
subdivisions  must  be  recognised. 

The  division  of  Mexico  into  natural  regions  will  be  discussed 
later. 


24— (1326) 


; 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 

CANADA 

The  Laurentian  Plateau. — ^The  general  characteristics  of  the 
Laurentian  region  have  already  been  described,  and  it  remains  to 
trace  their  effect  upon  its  economic  development.  The  great  shield 
of  Archaean  rocks,  of  which  those  known  as  Laurentian  are  the  most 
widely  distributed,  although  others  called  Huronian  and  Keewatin 
occur  in  many  places,  weathers  down  into  a  poor  and  infertile  soil. 
From  the  upper  parts  of  the  plateau  much  of  this  soil  was  removed 
by  the  glacial  ice-sheet,  and  in  many  places  the  bare  ice-polished 
rocks  still  appear  on  the  surface.  In  the  valleys  the  soil  is  fre- 
quently much  deeper,  but  it  is  only  along  the  river  courses,  where 
the  debris  from  the  rocks  has  been  resorted  by  river  action  and 
mixed  with  sediment,  that  it  is  really  fertile.  An  exception  to  this 
general  statement  ought  to  be  made,  however,  in  favour  of  these 
localities,  for  example,  along  the  west  coast  of  Hudson  Bay,  where 
inliers  of  younger  rocks  have  weathered  down  into  a  much  better 
soil. 

To  these  unfavourable  conditions  of  soil  must  be  added  conditions 
of  climate  equally  unfavourable.  The  greater  part  of  the  whole 
region  has  a  summer  temperature  too  low  for  successful  agriculture, 
and  it  is  only  in  the  more  southerly  parts  that  cultivation  is  ever 
likely  to  be  profitable.  With  the  development  of  the  mineral 
resources  of  the  region,  and  the  consequent  opening  up  of  its  com- 
munications, it  is  quite  probable  that  numerous  small  agricultural 
communities  may  ultimately  settle  in  favoured  localities.  These 
will  probably  have  recourse  to  mixed  farming,  but,  although  they 
will  meet  a  gradually  growing  local  demand,  they  are  hardly  likely 
ever  to  affect  the  world's  supply  of  agricultural  produce. 

To  the  south  of  lines  connecting  the  Seven  Islands,  in  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence,  with  the  southern  part  of  James  Bay,  and  the 
mouth  of  the  Albany  with  the  Lake  of  the  Woods,  the  Laurentian 
area  is  covered  with  trees  of  the  Northern  Pine  Belt,  and  this  is 
one  of  the  great  lumbering  districts  of  Canada.  The  multitude  of 
rivers,  the  hard  winters,  and  the  spring  floods,  all  facilitate  the 
movement  of  the  timber  from  the  forest ;  while  the  falls,  which 

376 


CANADA  377 

occur  on  the  margin  of  the  plateau,  provide  water-power  for  saw- 
mills. In  this  region,  also,  and  for  somewhat  similar  reasons,  the/ 
manufacture  of  wood  pulp  has  become  of  considerable  importance. 
Among  the  chief  centres  of  the  industry  are  the  districts  round 
Chicoutimi,  near  Lake  St.  John,  where  water-power  is  abundant, 
Sturgeon  Falls  on  Lake  Nipissing,  and  Hull,  Buckingham,  Lachute, 
and  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  all  on  the  margin  of  the  Laurentian  Plateau. 

Although  only  relatively  small  areas  of  the  Laurentian  Plateau 
have  as  yet  been  carefully  prospected,  the  mineral  wealth  of  the 
region  would  seem  to  constitute  its  chief  claim  to  economic  im- 
portance. It  is  found  mainly  in  those  districts  in  which  rocks 
of  the  Huronian,  Keewatin,  and  Hastings-Grenville  formations 
prevail,  although  it  also  occurs  along  with  intrusive  igneous  rocks. 
Of  these  various  formations  there  are  considerable  areas  in  the  south, 
and  they  are  also  believed  to  occur  in  other  parts  of  the  plateau. 

The  most  important  minerals  obtained  from  the  region  under  \ 
consideration  are  copper,  silver,  and  nickel.  The  first  of  these  is 
found  chiefly  in  the  nickel-copper  mines  at  Sudbury,  which,  although 
previously  known,  were  not  regarded  as  of  much  importance  until 
attention  was  drawn  to  them  in  1883.  Since  then  they  have 
been  extensively  worked,  and  in  1911  produced  about  17,000  tons  of 
nickel  and  9,000  tons  of  copper.  The  Sudbury  mines,  along  with 
those  of  New  Caledonia,  practically  produce  the  world's  supply  of 
nickel.  Copper  is  also  found  along  the  north  shores  of  Georgian 
Bay,  following  the  Une  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  but  the 
output  is  as  yet  of  little  importance.  In  1903  extensive  deposits 
of  silver  were  found  at  Cobalt,  about  100  miles  north-east  of  Sudbury, 
and  within  the  last  few  years  the  production  of  this  region  has 
greatly  increased,  the  yield  for  1911  being  30,000,000  ounces. 
Along  with  the  silver,  cobalt  and  nickel  are  also  found,  the  formeti 
in  such  quantities  indeed  that  it  is  unsaleable.  Iron  ores  occutj 
in  various  parts  of  the  Laurentian  region,  but  have  not  been  workedj 
to  any  great  extent.  The  largest  output  is  at  the  Helen  mine  in 
Michipicoten,  which  in  1911  produced  230,000  tons.  Considerable 
quantities  of  good  iron  ore  are  said  to  exist  in  Ungava,  and  it  has 
been  suggested  that  power  to  work  them  might  be  obtained  from 
the  Grand  Falls  on  the  Hamilton  River. 

l^^Although  great  interest  is  at  present  being  taken  in  the  Laurentian 
Plateau,  and  more  especially  in  its  southern  parts,  geographical 


378 


ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 


conditions  decree  that  it  will  remain  a  mining  and  lumbering  rather 
than  become  an  agricultural  country. 

The  Maritime  Provinces. — ^The  Maritime  Provinces  belong  in 
part  to  the  Appalachian  system.  On  the  north-west  of  New 
Brunswick,  and  along  the  coast  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  the  land, 
consisting  chiefly  of  pre-Cambrian  rocks,  in  which  those  of  igneous 
origin  prevail,  rises  to  heights  of  over  a  thousand  feet,  while  the 
intervening  area,  covered  with  Carboniferous  strata,  seldom  exceeds 
a  few  hundred  feet.  In  Nova  Scotia  a  number  of  ridges,  formed  by 
the  outcrop  of  harder  rocks,  run  more  or  less  parallel  to  the  general 
trend  of  the  peninsula,  and  are  continued  in  Cape  Breton  Island, 
being  separated  from  one  another  by  valleys  resulting  from  the 
removal  of  less  resistant  formations.  Along  the  Atlantic  coast 
the  rocks  are  chiefly  Silurian,  but  in  the  west  of  Nova  Scotia  and 
Cape  Breton,  as  weU  as  in  Prince  Edward  Island,  which  is  low- 
lying.  Carboniferous  and  Permian  formations  with  large  granitic 
areas  are  found. 

The  climate  of  the  Maritime  Provinces  is,  as  a  result  of  latitude, 
less  severe  than  that  of  the  Laurentian  Plateau,  and,  as  a  result  of 
proximity  to  the  ocean,  less  extreme  than  that  of  Central  Canada. 
The  following  figures  show  its  general  characteristics  : — 


Charlottetown  (P.E.I. 
Halifax  (N.S.) 
Fredericton  (N.B.)  . . 


Mean  tempera- 
ture for  three 
warmest 
months. 


62- r 

62-4 
63-5 


Mean  tempera- 
ture for  three 
coldest 
months. 

18-0°  F. 

23-9 

15-4 


Mean  annual 

precipitation. 

Inches. 

41-78 
54-74 
43-71 


The  chief  agricultural  areas  of  the  Maritime  Provinces  are  found 
in  the  Carboniferous  lowlands  of  New  Brunswick ;  along  the  shores 
of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  where  land  reclaimed  from  the  sea  may  be 
fertilised  year  after  year  by  the  opening  of  the  sluices  in  the  dykes  ; 
on  the  western  intervale  lands  of  Nova  Scotia,  where  Carboniferous 
and  Permian  rocks  prevail ;  and  in  Prince  Edward  Island. 

Within  the  last  thirty  years  the  character  of  agriculture  in  these 
regions  has  undergone  a  considerable  change.  Since  1881  the  area 
under  wheat  has  decreased,  while  that  devoted  to  dairy-farming, 
stock-rearing,  and  fruit-growing,  has  largely  increased.  The 
reasons  for  this  change,  which  is  even  more  marked  in    the    St 


380 


ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 


Lawrence  Lowlands,  will  be  discussed  in  connection  with  that  region. 
The  great  fruit-growing  districts  are  the  Annapolis\nd;ComwaUis 
valleys  in  Nova  Scotia,  which  contain  over  70  per  cent,  of  the  orchards 
of  the  Maritime  Provinces,  apples,  plums,  and  cherries,  being 
among  the  chief  products. 

The  importance  of  the  Maritime  Provinces  has  been  greatly 
augmented  by  their  mineral  wealth,  and  over  50  per  cent,  of  the 
Hotal  coal  production  of  Canada  is  obtained  from  the  coalfields  of 
\Nova  Scotia.  These  are  the  Sydney  coalfield,  which  extends  for 
thirty-two  miles  along  the  sea  coast  of  the  north-eastern  extremity 
of  Cape  Breton  and  produces  72  per  cent,  of  the  total  output,  the 
Inverness  coalfield,  along  the  west  coast  of  Cape  Breton  with  about 
6  per  cent.,  the  Pictou  coalfield  in  the  north-west  of  Nova  Scotia 
with  nearly  13  per  cent.,  and  the  Cumberland  coalfield  in  the  west 
with  nearly  9  per  cent.  In  New  Brunswick  the  Grand  Lake  coalfield, 
about  seventy  miles  north  of  the  city  of  St.  John,  5aelds  a  small 
quantity  not  amounting  to  1  per  cent,  of  the  whole.  In  1911  these 
fields  together  produced  7,000,000  tons.  The  coal  is  bituminous  and 
of  good  quality ;  it  is  suitable  for  the  production  of  gas  and  coke, 
and  is  used  as  a  steam  coal.  Part  is  consumed  at  home,  chiefly  in 
the  iron  works,  but  considerable  quantities  are  sent  by  rail  or 
shipped,  more  especially  from  Sydney  and  Louisbourg,  up  the  St. 
Lawrence  as  far  as  Montreal,  and  along  the  Atlantic  coast  as  far  as 
Boston. 

I  Although  iron  ore  occurs  in  many  parts  of  the  Maritime  Provinces, 
the  production  is  small  and  in  1911  hardly  amounted  to  54,000 
tons.  Since  1896  the  Wabana  mines  in  Bell  Island,  Newfoundland, 
have  been  the  principal  source  of  supply  for  the  iron  works  which 
are  situated  chiefly  at  Sydney  and  Londonderry.  In  1911  these 
produced  260,000  short  tons  of  pig-iron,  most  of  which  was 
converted  into  steel. 

The  agricultural  development  of  the  Maritime  Provinces  will 
probably  be  slow.  The  valuable  timber  resources  of  the  region 
retard  the  expansion  of  farming  and  give  an  impetus  to  lumbering  ; 
the  development  of  the  coalfields  and  the  facilities  for  the  importa- 
tion of  iron  ore  encourage  the  growth  of  manufactures  ;  the  rich 
fishing  grounds  of  the  continental  shelf  call  many  of  the  inhabitants 
to  the  sea,  and,  along  with  the  possession  of  the  winter  ports  of  the 
Dominion  on  the  Atlantic,  enable  them  to  retain  much  of  their  old 


CANADA  381 

interest  in  maritime  affairs.  Halifax,  on  the  east  coast  of  Nova 
Scotia,  is  generally  open  throughout  the  year,  and  St.  John,  in  New 
Brunswick,  is  always  open.  Both  are  connected  by  rail  with 
Montreal. 

The  St.  Lawrence  Lowlands  are  underlain  by  nearly  horizontal 
Palaeozoic  strata,  and  covered  with  glacial  debris  and  river  deposits  ; 
they  are,  on  the  whole,  flat  or  gently  undulating,  fertile,  and 
suitable  for  cultivation.  The  climate  is  somewhat  more  extreme"^ 
than  in  the  Maritime  Provinces,  but  less  so  than  in  the  centre  of 
Canada.  Its  general  character  is  indicated  by  the  undernoted 
figures  : — 


Mean  temperature  for 

three  warmest 

months. 

Mean  temperature  for 

three  coldest 

months. 

Montreal 

66-9°  F. 

15-7°  F. 

Ottawa 

66-7 

13-7 

Toronto 

66-4 

23-2 

The  precipitation  of  the  whole  region  is  considerable,  being 
between  30  and  40  inches ;  most  of  the  cyclonic  disturbances 
which  pass  across  North  America  leave  by  the  St.  Lawrence 
valley. 

The  agriculture  and  manufactures  of  Ontario  and  Quebec  are 
practically  confined  to  the  St.  Lawrence  Lowlands,  where  soil  and 
climate  are  favourable,  and  where  the  rivers  and  lakes  offered  a\ 
great  means  of  communication  along  which  settlement  took  place.  / 

The  change  in  agricultural  conditions,  indicated  in  the  section 
on  the  Maritime  Provinces,  is  more  pronounced  in  this  region,  and 
especially  in  Ontario.     During  the  last  thirty  years  the  area  under  j 
wheat  has  decreased,  while  increased  attention  has  been  paid  to  1 
dairying,  fruit -farming,  and  stock-raismg.      The  change  was  duel| 
to  the  opening  up    of  the  wheatfields  of  the  west ;    the  eastern' 
farmer,  his  land  exhausted  by  successive  crops  of  wheat,  found 
himself  unable  to  compete  with  the  virgin  soils  of  the  west,  and 
after  a  time  abandoned  the  cultivation  of  that  cereal  in  the  less 
suitable  districts,  finding  in  the  products  of  the  dairy,  the  orchard, 
and  the  pasture,  articles  for  which  there  was  a  considerable  demand 
both  at  home  and  abroad.     The  change  is  less  marked  in  Quebec, 
where  the  main  object  of  the  French  habitant  is  to  obtain  from  I 
his  farm  a  living  for  himself  and  his  family  rather  than  to  grow  for  I 


882  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

the  market,  and  where  the  great  conservatism  of  the  bulk  of  the 
people  renders  them  impervious  to  new  ideas. 

Manufactures  in  Canada  are  still  in  an  early  stage  of  development, 
and  consist  chiefly  in  preparing  the  products  of  the  farm,  the  mine, 
and  the  forest  for  export  abroad.  Further  progress  has  been 
retarded  by  a  variety  of  conditions.  For  one  thing  there  is  not  a 
large  amount  of  available  capital ;  much  money  has  been  invested  in 
land  and  in  agriculture  ;  much  is  required  to  finance  agriculturists  at 
certain  seasons  of  the  year  ;  and  large  sums  have  also  been  spent  in 
laying  down  railways  and  in  opening  up  communications.  Another 
drawback  has  been  the  smallness  of  the  Canadian  market ;  the 
French  habitant  has  always  made  it  his  aim  to  purchase  as  little 
as  possible  ;  for  long  the  Ontario  farmer  was  too  poor  to  buy  much  ; 
export  to  a  foreign  country  was  impossible.  Moreover,  th6  Cana- 
dian, belonging  to  an  essentially  agricultural  community,  was  not, 
,  until  recently,  seriously  interested  in  manufactures  ;  and  there  was 
the  additional  difficulty  that  the  requisite  skill  was  not  always  easily 
obtainable.  On  the  other  hand,  Canada  has  great  advantages  in 
her  large  exports  of  wheat  and  timber,  both  offering  opportunities 
for  the  expenditure  of  additional  labour ;  in  her  mineral  wealth, 
which  is  only  now  becoming  properly  known ;  in  her  rapidly 
increasing  agricultural  population,  demanding  alike  food  and 
clothing,  and  the  means  wherewith  to  cultivate  the  soil ;  in  her 
expanding  railway  system,  with  its  constant  demands  for  rolling 
stock  ;  and  in  all  the  needs  of  a  vigorous  and  prosperous  community. 
j  The  St.  Lawrence  Lowlands  contain  the  chief  manufacturing 
districts  in  the  country,  and  about  80  per  cent,  of  the  total  value 
of  the  manufactured  products  of  the  Dominion  may  be  credited  to 
the  two  provinces  of  Quebec  and  Ontario,  the  industrial  life  of  which 
i  is  largely,  though  not  entirely,  concentrated  in  the  lowlands. 
/  Ottawa  is  the  centre  of  the  timber  industry ;  pulp-mills  have 
been  established  in  several  places  where  water-power  is  available  ; 
and  paper  is  manufactured  at  Toronto.  The  tanning  of  leather 
and  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes  are  leading  industries  of 
Quebec,  and  Montreal  provides  the  Dominion  with  ready-made 
clothing.  Flour-milling  is  carried  on  at  a  number  of  towns,  especi- 
ally in  Ontario,  and  butter  and  cheese  are  made  for  export  at 
thousands  of  places  throughout  the  region.  Cotton  is  manufac- 
tured near  Quebec  with  power  derived  from  the  Montmorency  Falls, 


CANADA  383 

and  at  Sherbrooke  and  elsewhere  in  the  Eastern  Townships.  Iron 
and  steel  works  have  been  established,  among  other  places,  at 
Montreal,  Hamilton,  and  Toronto,  where  agricultural  implements 
are  also  manufactured. 

The  Winnipeg  Basin,  as  already  defined,  has  an  area  of  about 
275,000  square  miles.  In  general  appearance  it  is  a  great  plain 
sloping  gently  down  to  the  north  and  east ;  but  it  may  be  sub- 
divided into  regions  known  respectively  as  the  first,  second,  and 
third  prairie  steppes  or  slopes.  The  first  of  these  is  bounded  on 
the  east  by  the  Laurentian  country,  and  on  the  west  by  a  line  of 
heights  which  cross  the  international  boundary  about  forty  miles 
west  of  the  Red  River,  and  run  in  a  north-westerly  direction. 
This  slope  has  an  average  elevation  of  about  800  feet  and  an  area  of 
about  30,000  square  miles.  It  belonged  to  the  bed  of  the  glacial 
Lake  Agassiz,  and  the  glacial  deposits  with  which  it  is  covered  con- 
stitute a  stiff,  compact,  "  unctuous  "  clay  of  great  fertility.  The 
second  prairie  slope  is  bounded  on  the  west  by  a  height  known  as  the 
Missouri  Coteau,  which  crosses  the  international  boundary  about 
250  miles  west  of  the  previous  escarpment,  and  like  it  runs  in  a 
north-westerly  direction.  This  slope,  which  consists  chiefly  of 
rolling  prairie,  is  drift-covered ;  it  has  an  average  elevation  of 
1,600  feet,  and  an  area  of  about  100,000  square  miles.  The  third 
slope,  with  a  breadth  of  465  miles  at  the  international  boundary, 
rises  from  a  height  of  2,000  feet  in  the  east  to  one  of  4,000  feet  along 
the  foothills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  plains,  which  are  drift- 
covered,  are  generally  more  undulating  in  character  than  on  the  first 
and  second  slopes,  and  are  broken  up  in  places  by  hilly  regions. 

The  climate  of  the  Winnipeg  Basin  is  continental  in  character, 
and  the  range  between  summer  and  winter  temperatures  is,  as  shown 
in  the  following  table,  very  considerable. 


Average  mean  temperature 
of  three  coldest  months. 

Average  mean  temperature 
of  three  warmest  months. 

Winnipeg  . . 

•03°  F. 

63-5°  F. 

Qu'Appelle 
Prince  Albert    . 

3-3 
•4 

61-7 
59-4 

Medicine  Hat    . 

14-8 

65-3 

Edmonton 

111 

591 

Calgary      . .      . 

15-4 

57-8 

It  will  be  observed  that  over  the  whole  region  the  mean  summer 


384  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

temperature  is  sufficient  for  the  growth  of  wheat  and  other  cereals, 
although  there  is  danger  in  many  places  from  early  autumn  frosts. 
The  great  difference  between  winter  temperatures  in  the  east  and 
in  the  west  is  due  to  the  influence  of  the  warm  Chinook  winds  which 
prevail  over  the  latter  area.  These  winds,  which  blow  chiefly  in 
winter,  come  from  the  Pacific,  but  owe  their  high  temperature  to 
compression  while  they  are  descending  the  eastern  slopes  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains. 

The  rainfall  over  the  eastern  and  northern  parts  of  the  Winnipeg 
Basin  varies  from  15  to  20  inches  per  year,  but,  in  the  south-west, 
there  is  a  large  area  where  it  is  less,  and  where,  consequently, 
conditions  are  much  less  favourable  for  arable  farming.  The 
southern  parts  of  the  first  and  second  slopes  constitute  at  present 
the  wheat-producing  region  of  the  Winnipeg  Basin.  The  great 
stretches  of  flat  prairie,  which  formed  the  bed  of  Lake  Agassiz, 
with  their  fertile  soils,  sufficient  precipitation,  high  summer  tem- 
peratures, and  great  facilities  for  easy  cultivation  and  communica- 
tion, make  one  of  the  richest  agricultural  regions  of  the  world. 
The  corresponding  part  of  the  middle  slope,  though  somewhat 
drier,  more  especially  in  the  west,  has,  with  the  advent  of  American 
farmers  accustomed  to  less  humid  conditions  than  prevail  along  the 
Atlantic  seaboard,  made  rapid  progress,  and  now  contains  more  than 
half  of  the  wheat  lands  of  the  Winnipeg  Basin.  Throughout  thesd 
districts  wheat  may  be  regarded  as  a  certain  crop,  and  the  average 
yield  is  relatively  high,  being  about  18  bushels  per  acre. 

In  the  northern  parts  of  the  eastern  and  middle  slopes  the  lan( 
is  more  broken  in  character,  the  drainage  in  places  is  bad,  and  th6 
climate  is  less  favourable.  Considerable  areas,  moreover,  on  th€ 
eastern  slope  especially,  are  occupied  by  communities  of  Russians 
and  GaUcians,  whose  knowledge  of  agriculture  is  somewhat  primitive, 
and  who  farm  for  sustenance  rather  than  for  export.  Mixed  farming, 
accordingly,  prevails  here  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  in  the 
south. 

On  the  third  prairie  slope,  which  contains  the  south-western  pan 
of  Saskatchewan  and  the  southern  part  of  Alberta,  conditions 
especially  in  the  semi-arid  region  in  the  south,  are  at  present  lesj 
favourable  to  agriculture.  The  semi-arid  area  "  is  bounded  on  th< 
south  by  the  international  boundary,  on  the  east  and  north  by 
line  commencing  at  the  intersection  of  long.   102**  W.  with  th( 


CANADA  385 

international  boundary,  and  running  from  thence  north-westerly 
to  lat.  51°  30',  and  thence  west  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  This 
portion  of  the  territories  contains  about  80,000  square  miles."  In 
this  district, fall  wheat  maybe  grown  in  favoured  localities  without 
irrigation,  but,  generally  speaking,  some  modifications  in  the  usual 
methods  of  farming  are  necessary  to  ensure  a  certain  crop.  To  the 
east  and  north  of  the  semi-arid  region  wheat  may  be  grown  over 
large  areas,  although  in  some  parts,  more  especially  in  the  north- 
west,*^oats  form  a  more  suitable  crop,  and  the  general  tendency  is 
to  the  development  of  mixed  fanning. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  wheat  belt  of  the  Winnipeg  Basin 
runs  across  it  from  south-east  to  north-west,  following  the  general 
trend  of  the  isotherms.  On  the  north-east  it  is  limited  by  cold,  and 
on  the  south-west  by  drought. 

The  following  figures  indicate  the  nature  of  the  progress  made 
in  wheat  cultivation  by  this  region  within  recent  years. 


Canada. 

The  Winnipeg  Basin. 

Area.                   Production. 

Area.                  Production. 

Acres.                     Bushels. 

Acres.                    Bushels. 

1901.     3,961,000            84,814,000 

2,516,000            62,820,000 

1911.  10,373,000          215,851,000 

9,301,000          194,083,000 

The  distribution  of  wheat  upon  the  three  prairie  slopes  was  as 

follows  in  1911:—! 

Area  (acres). 

Production  (bushels). 

Eastern  slope       . .     1,277,000 

25,698,000 

Middle  slope         . .     6,707,000 

121,363,000 

Western  slope      . .     2,195,000 

46,718,000 

The  rapid  development  of  Canadian  agriculture,  which,  as  indi- 
cated above,  has  taken  place  within  recent  years  in  the  Winnipeg 
Basin,  has  natiurally  led  to  much  speculation  as  to  the  future  possi- 
bilities of  the  region.  It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  present 
production  of  the  land  is  but  a  fraction  of  what  it  will  ultimately 
be,  but  with  regard  to  its  potential  resources  there  are  grave 
divergences  of  opinion.  A  few  years  ago  several  estimates  of  the 
future  production  of  wheat  in  the  Winnipeg  Basin  were  made 
by   competent    authorities,    and   they   varied   in    amount    from 

*  Compiled  from  Provincial  Reports,  which  in  respect  to  acreage  do  not 
agree  with  the  Census  figures  for  1911  quoted  above.  The  crop  of  1911  was 
above  the  average. 


386  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY  ] 

250,000,000  bushels  annually,  to  800,000,000  bushels.  All  such 
estimates,  however,  must,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  case,  be 
extremely  hypothetical  in  character,  and  for  their  fulfilment  must 
depend  upon  the  extent  to  which  the  demands  of  the  country  are 
met.  Of  these,  the  most  pressing  are  an  increase  in  population 
and  a  further  development  of  communications.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  a  rural  population  of  900,000  is  absolutely  essential 
to  procure  an  annual  yield  of  250,000,000  bushels.  The  rural 
population  in  1911  (the  last  Census  year)  was  848,000,  and  it  is 
probable  that  no  considerable  increase  will  be  necessary  before 
the  lowest  estimate  of  the  possible  yield  is  reached.  For  the  highest, 
800,000,000  bushels,  it  is  estimated  that  a  rural  population  of 
2,880,000  would  be  necessary.  Clearly,  so  large  a  population, 
acquainted  with  the  agricultural  methods  of  Central  Canada,  cannot 
be  obtained  for  some  time,  though  that  it  will  ultimately  be 
forthcoming,  if  required,  is  a  matter  of  little  doubt.  There  are 
several  sources  from  which  it  may  be  recruited.  Within  recent 
years  a  considerable  movement  from  Eastern  Canada  has  taken 
place,  and  there  has  also  been  a  large  influx  from  the  United  States, 
made  up  in  part  of  Canadians  or  their  descendants  who  emigrated 
from  Canada  during  the  'eighties,  in  part  of  native-born  Americans, 
and  in  part  of  naturalised  Americans  from  the  continent  of  Europe. 
From  Great  Britain,  and  from  several  continental  countries,  especi- 
ally Scandinavia,  Russia,  and  Galicia,  there  is  also  a  steady  flow. 
The  settlers  from  the  Eastern  Provinces  and  the  United  States  are 
perhaps  the  most  suitable,  as  they  already  possess  a  knowledge 
of  farming  under  Canadian  conditions  ;  of  those  from  Great  Britain, 
the  Scottish  are  generally  recognised  as  more  adaptable  than  the 
English;  while  of  those  from  continental  countries,  Icelanders 
Scandinavians,  and  Galicians  are  amongst  the  most  satisfactory. 
The  following  figures  for  the  fiscal  years  1905-11  (inclusive)  indicate 
the  extent  of  the  immigration  into  the  whole  of  Canada,  and  the 
countries  from  which  the  immigrants  are  principally  drawn. 

I  From  the  United  Kingdom         .       498,473 

^  From  the  United  States  .       435,971 

From  other  Countries         .         .       308,542 


Total  .     1.242,986 


CANADA  387 

The  climatic  conditions  of  the  country  present  another  set  of 
problems.  Over  no  small  part  of  the  area  on  which  wheat  can  be 
profitably  grown,  there  is  the  ever-recurring  danger  of  the  crop 
being  damaged  by  early  autumn  frosts,  and,  although  it  is  notl 
necessarily  rendered  useless  thereby,  it  is  greatly  reduced  in  value. i 
One  of  the  great  demands  of  the  farmer,  therefore,  is  for  quick 
ripening  and  frost-resisting  varieties,  and  the  development  of  such 
is  being  carried  on  with  success  on  experimental  farms  in  various 
parts  of  the  Dominion.  In  the  semi-arid  area,  the  deficiency  of 
moisture  frequently  renders  ordinary  agricultural  methods  of  no 
avail,  and  irrigation  and  dry  farming  have  to  be  summoned  to  the 
farmer's  aid.  The  two  largest  districts  irrigated  at  present  are 
situated,  the  one  to  the  east  of  Calgary,  where  a  block  of  3,000,000 
acres,  which  was  granted  to  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  obtains 
sufficient  water  from  the  Bow  River  to  ensure  the  growth  of  crops 
over  half  its  area  ;  and  the  other,  and  less  important,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Lethbridge,  where  water  can  be  obtained  from  the  St. 
Mary's  and  Milk  Rivers.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  future  may 
see  a  considerable  development  of  irrigation  in  the  western  parts  of 
the  semi-arid  region  where  a  number  of  streams  come  rapidly  down 
from  the  Rocky  Mountains.  For  the  full  benefit  to  be  derived 
from  irrigated  land,  it  is  maintained  that  hay  and  fodder  must  be 
grown  as  well  as  cereals.  The  ranching  industry  of  the  region  will 
therefore  also  benefit,  as  stock  raised  on  the  prairies  can  be 
*'  finished  "  for  market  on  the  irrigated  lands.  The  system  of  dry 
farming,  beginning  to  make  its  way  into  Canada,  is  somewhat 
as  foUows :  the  land  is  deeply  ploughed  and  well  worked ;  the 
subsoil  is  beaten  into  a  compact  mass  so  as  to  retain  whatever 
rainfall  there  is  within  reach  of  the  plant ;  while  on  the  surface 
there  are  about  three  inches  of  loose  soil,  the  effect  of  which  is  to 
prevent  evaporation.  Land  treated  in  this  way  is  usually  cropped 
once  in  two  years,  but  the  yield  is  above  the  average. 

The  subject  of  communications  will  be  dealt  with  in  a  later 
section.  The  development  of  railways  is  absolutely  essential  for 
the  economic  welfare  of  the  north-west,  but,  as  there  is  no  reason 
to  believe  that  it  will  be  wanting,  the  subject  need  only  be 
mentioned  here. 

As  the  Winnipeg  Basin  is  underlain  mainly  by  Cretaceous  and, 
in  places,  Tertiary  materials,  those    minerals    which    are    found 


388 


ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 


associated  with  the  older  rocks  are  generally  absent.  The  mining 
industry  is  therefore  confined  to  the  exploitation  of  the  seams  of 
lignite  which  underlie  the  greater  part  of  Alberta,  south  of  the  fifty 
fifth  parallel,  and  extend  eastwards  into  Saskatchewan.  Coal  cf  a 
similar  character  is  found  in  the  Cypress  Hills  and  Wood  Mountains 
of  southern  Saskatchewan,  and  is  also  believed  to  exist  in  Turtle 
Mountain  in  Manitoba.  Edmonton  is  at  present  the  chief  mining 
centre  of  all  this  region,  but  there  are  many  small  mines  scattered 
over  the  country,  and  it  is  said  that  almost  every  rancher  owns 
one.  Notwithstanding  its  lignitic  character  the  coal  is  of  con- 
siderable economic  importance  as  the  country  is  treeless,  and  cheap 
fuel  of  some  kind  is  absolutely  essential  for  the  agricultural  popula- 
tion which  is  so  rapidly  increasing  in  numbers.  From  the  mines 
in  the  south  of  Saskatchewan  a  considerable  amount  is  sent  as  far 
east  as  Winnipeg.  Natural  gas  has  been  found  at  Medicine  Hat 
in  the  south  of  Alberta,  and  in  the  north  along  the  Athabasca. 

Winnipeg,  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Assiniboine  and  the 
Red  River,  and  midway  between  the  international  boundary  and 
Lake  Winnipeg,  is  the  great  collecting  and  distributing  centre,  and 
the  chief  industrial  town,  of  the  region.  Other  towns  serve  mainly 
as  local  centres  for  the  districts  in  which  they  are  situated,  and 
carry  on  a  few  primary  manufactures. 

The  Athabasca-Mackenzie  Plains. — ^To  the  north  of  the 
Winnipeg  Basin,  and  between  the  Laurentian  Plateau  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  the  Athabasca-Mackenzie  plains  slope  down 
gently  towards  the  Arctic.  In  the  south  there  are  extensive 
grasslands  intermingled  with  trees,  but  further  north  the  country 
is  covered  by  the  thin  and  poor  sub-Arctic  forest.  Owing  to 
decreasing  altitude  towards  the  north,  together  with  the  increasing 
length  of  the  day  during  the  summer  months,  the  mean  temperature 
at  that  season  of  the  year  remains  relatively  high,  as  the  following 
figures  indicate. 


Mean, 


June. 

July. 

Aug. 

56-5°  F. 

61-3°  F. 

57-4°  F. 

54  0 

61-5 

58-2 

55-5 

60-2 

55-7 

Dunvegan,  56"  N.  (approx.) 
(On  Peace  River) 

Chipewyan,  59°  N.  (approx.) 
(On  Lake  Athabasca) 

Fort  Simpson,  62°  N.  (approx.) 
(On  Mackenzie  River) 


58-4  *»  F. 
57-9 
57  0 


CANADA  389 

Of  the  agricultural  capacities  of  this  country  it  is  difficult  to 
speak  with  certainty.  It  is  true,  no  doubt,  that  crops  of  barley 
have  been  raised  at  Fort  Simpson,  and  that  wheat  has  been 
grown  at  Fort  Providence  in  almost  the  same  latitude. 
But  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that,  although  these  crops  are  grown 
only  in  the  most  favourable  localities  at  the  present  time,  they  are 
always  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  frost.  It  is  probably  safe  to 
argue  that,  while,  with  the  development  of  frost-resisting  wheats 
and  the  slight  improvement  in  local  climatic  conditions  which 
appears  to  follow  the  tilling  of  the  soil,  the  cultivation  of 
wheat  may  extend,  in  the  low  lands,  some  distance  to  the  north  of 
the  Winnipeg  Basin,  the  southern  part  of  the  region  under  con- 
sideration is  mainly  suitable  for  a  limited  amount  of  mixed  farming, 
and  the  more  northerly  parts  will  remain  as  they  are  at  present. 

British  Columbia. — ^This  section  of  the  Western  Cordillera, 
although  considered  as  one  natural  region,  really  consists  of  a 
large  number  of  such  regions,  each  of  which  conforms  to  one  or 
other  of  a  few  distinct  types.  It  extends  from  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains in  the  east  to  the  coastal  ranges  on  the  west,  and  includes  both ; 
in  the  south  the  intervening  land  is  occupied  by  a  grouping 
of  several  irregular  ranges,  and  in  the  north  between  the  58th  and 
60th  parallels  there  is  a  mountainous  country  which  separates  it 
from  the  Yukon  Plateau  lying  beyond.  To  the  west  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  in  the  south,  and  separated  from  them  by  the  Upper 
Columbia  and  Kootenay  rivers,  is  the  Selkirk  Range,  which  in  turn 
is  separated  from  the  Gold  Range  by  the  southward  flowing  Col- 
umbia. Beyond  this  lies  what  is  known  as  the  Interior  Plateau,  a 
mountainous  region  with  an  average  height  of  about  3,500  feet, 
intersected  by  river  valleys,  which,  in  the  case  of  the  large  ones,  do 
not  rise  to  an  elevation  of  more  than  1,000  feet  above  sea-level, 
while  the  intervening  heights  seldom  exceed  5,000  feet.  The  west 
coast  is  much  broken  up  by  deep,  fiord-like  indentations,  and  is 
fringed  by  a  long  chain  of  islands,  which  are  the  continuation 
northwards  of  the  Olympic  mountains  of  Washington. 

The  geological  formation  of  the  region  is  extremely  complicated. 
The  Rocky  Mountains  and  Vancouver  Island  consist  chiefly  of 
sedimentary  measures  of  Palaeozoic  age  which  contain  infolded 
Mesozoic  strata  ;   the  coastal  ranges  are  built  up  of  granitic  rocks; 
while  the  interior  plateau  contains  large  tracts  of  country  covered 


390  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

by  volcanic  rocks  of  Tertiary  times,  and  great  areas  of  intrusive 
granitic  rocks.  Further  north,  wide  stretches  of  Cretaceous  rocks 
are  found. 

The  cHmate  of  the  whole  of  this  region  is  very  different  from  that 
of  Eastern  and  Central  Canada,  and  is  determined  mainly  by  the 
prevailing  westerly  winds  which,  blowing  over  the  North  Pacific^ 
are  relatively  warm  in  winter  and  cool  in  summer.  Thus  the  range 
between  summer  and  winter  temperatures  is  greatly  reduced  as 
the  following  figures  show  : — 

Mean  temperature  for  Mean  temperature  ioi 

three  coldest  months.  three  warmest  months. 

Victoria     ..      ..  397°  F.  58-8°  F. 

Kamloops         ..  268  66-7 

In  winter  the  isotherms  run  from  north-west  to  south-east,  while 
in  summer  they  trend  northwards,  more  or  less  parallel  to  the  coast, 
before  making  their  great  bend  to  the  south-east.  The  precipita- 
tion of  the  whole  region  varies  greatly.  Along  the  windward  slope 
of  the  coastal  mountains  it  is  very  high,  being  frequently  between 
70  and  100  inches,  and  on  some  of  the  islands  even  the  latter  amount 
is  exceeded.  On  the  leeward  slopes  it  decreases,  and  over  a  wide 
belt  running  north  and  south  across  the  Interior  Plateau  it  does 
not  exceed  10  inches  ;  but  on  the  west  side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
it  increases  again  to  over  30,  and  in  some  places  to  over  40  inches 
per  year. 

The  vegetation  of  the  region  varies  with  climate.  The  greatel 
part,  except  in  the  north,  is  forested,  but  in  the  southern  interior, 
where  the  rainfall  is  low,  there  are  wide  stretches  of  grassland, 
Among  the  more  valuable  trees  are  the  Douglas  fir,  the  red  cedar, 
the  yellow  cedar,  the  maple,  and  the  western  oak.  Next  to  mining, 
lumbering  is  the  most  important  industry  of  British  Columbia, 
and  large  quantities  of  valuable  wood  are  exported.  Within 
recent  years,  sawmills  have  been  set  up  in  the  mountainous 
districts  away  from  the  coast  for  the  supply  of  timber  to  the  treeless 
plains  further  east.  Preparations  are  also  being  made  for  the 
establishment  of  pulp  factories. 
!  Agricultural  conditions  differ  considerably  from  those  prevailing 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  There  is  much  fertile  land,  but  it 
is  scattered  throughout  the  country,  in  the  river  valleys,  alonj 
lake  shores,  on  the  deltas,  and  in  other  districts  which  have  beei 


CANADA  391 

cleared  of  timber.  In  the  dry  belt,  where  grassland  occurs,  irrigation 
is  necessary  to  ensure  good  crops.  Mixed  farming  is  general  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  province.  Cereals  are  grown  in  many 
places,  but  are  chiefly  used  for  feeding  stock,  ranching  being  an 
important  industry.  Further  north,  along  the  route  of  the  Grand 
Trunk  Pacific  Railway,  and  in  the  Peace  and  Athabasca  river 
districts,  more  attention  is  being  paid  to  the  cultivation  of  wheat, 
but  the  amount  produced  is  still  small.  As  much  of  the  land  is 
forested,  and  as  cultivation  is  more  difficult  than  in  the  east,  it  is 
probable  that  progress  will  be  slow,  and  that  it  will  not  be  until 
more  intensive  cultivation  is  necessary  in  the  Winnipeg  Basin 
that  wheat -growing  on  a  large  scale  will  prove  remunerative  west  of 
the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Fruit-growing  is  one  of  the  most  important  industries  in  the 
south  of  British  Columbia.  In  all  the  fertile  valleys,  west  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  and  south  of  Cariboo,  apples,  pears,  cherries, 
plums,  and  small  fruits  can  be  grown.  Peaches,  grapes,  and 
nectarines  are  chiefly  raised  in  the  interior,  south  of  the  trans-con- 
tinental line,  where  the  warm  dry  summers  produce  excellent  crops, 
but  render  irrigation  necessary.  Among  the  principal  districts 
in  which  fruit  is  at  present  grown  are  Vancouver  Island,  New 
Westminster,  Okanagan,  Lillooet,  Yale,  and  Kootenay. 

British  Columbia  accounts  for  nearly  one-third  of  the  annual  value 
of  Canadian  fisheries.  The  Fraser  and  other  rivers  along  the  west 
coast  are  ascended  each  year  by  vast  numbers  of  salmon,  and  these 
contribute  about  two-thirds  of  the  value  of  the  annual  output. 
Halibut  fishing  ranks  next  in  importance,  and  a  certain  amount 
of  sealing  and  whaling  is  also  carried  on. 

Mineral  wealth  is  both  abundant  and  varied,  though  its  full/ 
extent  is  unknown.  Gold  occurs  in  placer  deposits  in  many  parts  of  | 
the  interior  ;  and  it  is  worked  by  hydraulic  methods,  chiefly  in  the- 
Cariboo  district,  though  the  output  is  small.  Gold-copper  deposits 
are  frequent  in  the  regions  of  contact  between  intrusive  granites 
and  older  rocks,  which  He  to  the  west  and  south  of  the  Arrow 
Lakes  ;  and  of  the  two  chief  producing  regions  at  present,  the  first  is 
situated  in  the  basin  of  Trail  Creek,  which  drains  into  the  Columbia, 
and  has  Rossland  as  its  chief  town  ;  and  the  second  is  Grand 
Forks,  in  the  Boundary  district  of  Yale.  The  production  of  gold 
obtained  by  lode-mining  from  these  and  other  areas  amounts  in 

25-(i326) 


392  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

value  to  over  £1,000,000.  Copper  is  produced  in  the  same  localities, 
the  output  of  the  Boundary  district  being  over  one-half  of  the  total 
annual  output  of  the  Cordilleran  region  ;  while  the  mines  at  Ross- 
land  produce  about  one-ninth,  and  the  copper  districts  situated  at 
various  points  along  the  Pacific  coast  about  one-fourth.  The  total 
amount  averages  42,000,000  lbs.  Silver-lead  deposits  are  found  also 
in  regions  around  intrusive  rocks  in  the  country  between  the  Selkirk 
Range  and  the  Arrow  Lakes,  though  some  occur  farther  west  in 
the  Yale  District.  Iron  ores  exist  in  various  parts,  but  so  far  they 
have  only  been  worked  at  Cherry  Bluff  near  Kamloops,  and  in 
Texada  Island.  The  total  output  has  only  on  one  or  two  occasions 
reached  2,000  tons.  The  coal  areas  are  extensive  and  widespread. 
In  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Cretaceous  measures  containing  coal 
generally  occur  in  long  narrow  bands  among  the  folded  and  faulted 
Palaeozoic  and  Mesozoic  strata,  and  are  found  at  intervals  between 
the  international  boundary  and  the  Athabasca  River.  The  coals 
are,  as  a  rule,  bituminous,  but  in  places  they  pass  into  anthracite, 
as  at  the  town  of  that  name  and  at  Bankhead,  where  the  present 
Canadian  supply  of  anthracite,  amounting  to  235,000  tons  per 
year,  is  obtained.  Further  south  are  the  Elk  River  and  Crowsnest 
basins,  the  first  of  which  has  an  output  of  over  1,000,000  tons, 
and  manufactures  considerable  quantities  of  coke  at  Fernie,  while 
the  second  is  the  chief  field  in  Alberta  producing  bituminous  coals, 
and  yields  1,000,000  tons  per  year.  In  Vancouver  Island,  mining 
is  pursued  on  the  east  coast  at  Nanaimo  and  Comox,  and  in  1910  the 
amount  produced  was  nearly  1,800,000  tons.  Much  of  the  coal  and 
coke  from  the  Elk  River  and  Crowsnest  areas  makes  its  way  across 
the  frontier  into  Montana,  Idaho,  and  Washington  ;  while  the 
mines  in  Vancouver  Island  serve  the  coast  from  Washington  to 
Alaska.  Coal  has  also  been  located  in  many  places  which  at  present 
are  too  distant  from  good  means  of  communication  to  render 
exploitation  profitable. 

The  economic  activities  of  the  Cordilleran  region  are  intimately 
connected  with  its  past  history  and  present  conditions.  To  the 
geological  changes  which  have  taken  place  it  owes  the  variety  of 
its  mineral  wealth ;  configuration  and  climate  determine  alike  its 
timber  resources  and  its  agricultural  areas ;  from  the  rivers  it  draws 
its  vast  supplies  of  fish.  At  present  a  mere  handful  of  people 
(392,000  in  1911)  are  working  the  vast  resources  of  this  region, 


CANADA  393 

but  it  is  not  unlikely  that  the  future  may  see  a  great  industrial 
population  settled  here,  sending  its  products  not  only  to  the 
agricultural  lands  further  east  but  to  all  parts  of  the  Pacific  area. 
The  principal  towns  include  Vancouver,  Victoria,  Nanaimo,  and 
Rossland.  Vancouver,  with  a  population  of  100,000,  is  situated  on 
Burrard  Inlet ;  it  is  the  western  terminus  of  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway,  has  good  harbour  facilities,  and  is  an  important  Pacific 
port.  Victoria  (31,000),  the  capital  of  British  Columbia,  is  on  the 
south-east  of  Vancouver  Island ;  it  has  an  excellent  harbour,  and 
is  an  important  shipping  centre.  Nanaimo  and  Rossland  are 
mining  centres  ;  New  Westminster,  on  the  Fraser,  is  largely  engaged 
in  canning  salmon  ;  Nelson  is  the  business  centre  of  the  Kootenay 
District. 

The  Yukon  region  of  Canada  occupies  the  south-eastern  part  A 
of  the  Yukon  Plateau,  which  stretches  from  the  northern  border 
of  British  Columbia  into  Alaska.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by 
the  last  ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  which  overlook  the  valley 
of  the  Mackenzie,  and  on  the  west  by  the  Coast  Ranges.  The 
interior  of  the  country  is  cut  up  by  valleys  varying  from  1,000  to 
3,000  feet  in  depth,  but  the  uplands  form  broad  plains  and  are  the 
remains  of  a  plateau  which  has  been  dissected  by  the  Yukon  and 
its  tributaries.  The  climate  is  severe,  and,  although  a  certain 
amount  of  cultivation  is  possible,  the  economic  value  of  the  region 
depends  entirely  upon  its  minerals.  Of  these  the  most  importantly 
is  gold,  which  is  at  present  chiefly  worked  in  the  Klondike,  a  district 
bounded  by  the  Yukon,  Klondike,  and  Indian  rivers.  The  gold 
occurs  in  placer  deposits,  both  in  the  valleys  of  existing  streams 
and  in  the  remains  of  older  valleys  on  the  hillsides.  The  con- 
tinuously frozen  character  of  the  subsoil,  in  which  the  gold  occurs, 
rendered  placer  mining  more  difficult  than  usual ;  and  it  was  not 
till  the  expensive  method  of  thawing  the  ground  by  steam  was 
introduced  in  1899  that  the  maximum  jdeld  was  obtained.  In 
1900  the  output  was  valued  at  £4,500,000,  or  more  than  twice  the 
amount  of  1898.  After  1900,  however,  the  yield  of  gold  rapidly 
declined,  and  in  1907  did  not  exceed  £600,000.  Since  then  hydrauHc 
machinery  has  been  introduced  and  there  has  been  a  slight  recovery. 
Coal,  copper,  and  platinum  are  also  found  in  the  Yukon  and  worked 
to  some  extent.  A  railway  has  been  constructed  from  Skagway, 
at  the  head  of  Lynn  Canal,  across  the  White  Pass  to  White  Horse, 


394  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

from  which  point  there  is  river  communication  by  the  Lewes  and 
Yukon  rivers  to  Dawson,  the  chief  town  of  the  Klondike. 
I  Communications. — ^The  poHtical  and  economic  growth  of  Canada 
lis  to  a  great  extent  the  result  of  the  development  of  its  railway 
system.  In  earlier  times,  it  is  true,  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Great 
Lakes  offered  a  means  of  access  into  the  country,  and  rendered 
possible  the  foundation  of  Quebec  and  Ontario,  but  the  close 
settlement  of  the  region  further  west  could  not  be  effected  until 
the  advent  of  the  railway.  Since  then  the  progress  of  agriculture 
and  the  extension  of  railways  have  been  concurrent. 

Four  important  systems  at  present  exist.  The  Intercolonial 
Railway  connects  Montreal  with  Halifax  and  St.  John,  the  winter 
ports  of  the  Dominion ;  but  the  political  conditions  prevailing  at  the  ^ 
time  the  railway  was  built  rendered  it  advisable  that  it  should  be 
as  far  as  possible  from  the  American  frontier,  and  accordingly  it 
does  not  follow  the  most  direct  route.  This  is  taken  by  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific,  which,  however,  passes  through  Maine,  in  the  United 
States,  on  its  way  from  Montreal  to  St.  John.  From  Montreal 
westward,  this  line,  as  yet  the  only  trans-continental  one  in  Canada, 
runs  north  of  the  Great  Lakes,  by  Sudbury  and  Port  Arthur,  to 
Winnipeg.  It  then  pushes  its  way  across  the  prairie  regions  to 
the  Western  Cordillera,  enters  the  Rocky  Mountains  by  the  Bow 
Valley,  crosses  Kicking  Horse  Pass,  and  descends  into  the  valley 
of  the  Columbia.  It  leaves  this  river  to  cross  the  Selkirk  Range, 
and  then  follows,  first  the  South  Thompson  River,  and  then  the 
Fraser  River,  almost  to  its  terminus  at  Vancouver.  Among  the 
more  important  branches  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  one 
runs  from  Montreal,  by  Toronto,  through  peninsular  Ontario  to 
Detroit ;  a  second  breaks  off  at  Winnipeg  and  goes  by  Saskatoon 
to  Strathcona — on  the  opposite  bank  of  the  Saskatchewan  from 
Edmonton  ;  a  third  leaves  the  main  line  near  Medicine  Hat,  and, 
entering  the  Rocky  Mountains  by  Crowsnest  Pass,  taps  the  coal- 
fields of  that  region ;  while  a  fourth  runs  from  Calgary  and  joins 
the  Winnipeg-Strathcona  line  near  the  latter  town.  In  conjunction 
with  the  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul  and  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Railway,  the 
Canadian  Pacific  also  connects  Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Winnipeg,  and 
Pasqua  (west  of  Regina)  with  Minneapolis  and  St.  Paul. 

The  Grand  Trunk  Railway  has  two  important  roads  running  from 
Montreal :   one  to  Portland,  in  Maine,  and  the  other  to  Chicago,  by 


CANADA  395 

way  of  the  Ontario  peninsula,  with  the  dii^erent  parts  of  which  the 
main  hne  has  many  connections.  Another  company,  the  Grand 
Trunk  Pacific  Railway  Company,  closely  connected  with  the  Grand 
Trunk  Railway  Company,  is  with  the  assistance  of  the  government, 
building  a  new  trans-continental  line,  the  projected  route  of  which 
is  as  follows  :  from  Moncton  in  New  Brunswick  it  will  run  to  the 
St.  Lawrence,  near  Quebec,  keeping  within,  but,  for  a  consider- 
able part  of  the  way,  near  to,  the  Canadian  frontier.  Crossing 
the  river  above  Quebec,  it  will  strike  westwards  considerably  to 
the  north  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway.  There  will  be  con- 
nections with  Quebec,  Montreal,  and  Port  Arthur,  but  the  first 
great  town  into  which  the  main  line  will  actually  run  is  Winnipeg. 
From  Winnipeg  the  railway  will  go  by  Saskatoon  to  Edmonton  ; 
and  from  that  town  will  be  continued  westwards  towards  the  YeUow- 
head  Pass,  by  which  it  will  cross  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  will 
then  follow  the  Fraser  as  far  as  the  great  bend  of  that  river  to  the 
south,  and,  crossing  into  the  basin  of  the  Skeena,  will  descend  by 
its  valley  to  the  Pacific  coast  at  Prince  Rupert.  This  route,  which 
is  almost  completed,  will  He  entirely  within  British  territory ;  it 
will,  because  of  the  more  rortherly  position  of  Prince  Rupert,  offer 
a  shorter  sea  voyage  to  Yokohama  and  Northern  China  than 
Vancouver  does  ;  it  will  open  up  a  part  of  the  Laurentian  Plateau 
hitherto  untapped  by  railways  ;  and  it  will,  because  of  its  easy 
gradients,  be  able  to  convey  grain  from  part  of  the  Winnipeg  Basin 
to  the  Pacific  coast,  whence  it  may  be  shipped  either  to  the  Far 
East,  or  by  the  Panama  Canal  to  Europe. 

The  main  line  of  the  Canadian  Northern  Railway,  which  likewise 
aims  at  eventually  becoming  trans-continental,  runs  from  Port 
Arthur  to  Winnipeg,  passing  to  the  south  of  the  Lake  of  the  Woods, 
and  therefore  entering  the  United  States  for  a  short  distance, 
and  from  Winnipeg  to  Edmonton,  on  which  part  of  the  route 
it  hes  further  north  than  either  the  Canadian  Pacific  or  the  Grand 
Trunk  Pacific.  Another  of  its  lines  runs  west  from  Winnipeg 
to  Regina,  north  by  Saskatoon  to  Prince  Albert,  east  to  the 
vicinity  of  Dawson  Bay  on  Lake  Winnipegosis,  and  south-east  to 
the  Winnipeg-Edmonton  line  near  Lake  Dauphin.  About  150 
miles  east  of  Prince  Albert  is  Etomami,  whence  a  line  runs  to  The 
Pas  on  the  Saskatchewan,  the  starting-point  of  the  proposed 
Hudson  Bay  line,  which,  as  at  present  determined,  will  go  to  Port 


396  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

Nelson.  This  railway  is  to  be  constructed  by  the  Canadian 
Government  with  the  object  of  offering  an  alternative  and  shorter 
route  from  the  wheat-growing  regions  of  Canada  to  the  United 
Kingdom.  From  Montreal,  and  from  Port  Nelson,  the  distance 
to  Liverpool  is  practically  the  same.  At  the  present  time, 
much  of  the  grain  going  east  is  sent  to  Montreal  by  Winnipeg 
and  the  Great  Lakes,  but  as  Winnipeg  is  over  400  miles  distant 
from  the  head  of  navigation  on  Lake  Superior,  and  as  there  is,  in 
addition  to  railway  freight,  the  cost  of  conveyance  down  the  Lakes, 
it  is  obvious  that  all  places  in  the  north-west  which  are  not  more 
than  400  miles,  at  the  least,  nearer  to  Winnipeg  than  to  Port  Nelson 
will  find  it  cheaper,  other  things  remaining  the  same,  to  export 
their  grain  by  the  Hudson  Bay  route.  Under  these  conditions  the 
hinterland  of  Port  Nelson  would  include  the  greater  part  of  the 
agricultural  regions  on  the  second  and  third  prairie  slopes.  The 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  the  development  of  the  route  are  connected 
with  the  navigation  of  Hudson  Bay  and  Hudson  Strait.  Neither 
of  these,  it  is  true,  is  ever  frozen  over  ;  but  at  most  times  of  the 
year  there  is  much  floating  ice,  from  which  modern  steel-built  ships 
are  peculiarly  liable  to  receive  injury,  and  special  boats  would 
probably  have  to  be  built  for  the  trade.  Moreover,  the  harbour 
at  Port  Nelson  would  be  frozen  up  about  the  end  of  October,  and, 
although  it  might  be  kept  open  a  few  weeks  longer  by  ice-breakers, 
the  period  between  the  end  of  harvest  and  the  close  of  navigation 
would  necessarily  be  a  short  one.  Notwithstanding  these  defects 
the  route  may  prove  of  considerable  value,  as  it  will  relieve  to  a 
great  extent  the  congestion  which  always  occurs  on  the  existing 
lines  when  the  season's  crop  begins  to  move  eastward  in  the 
autumn. 

Of  the  waterways  of  Canada,  the  most  important  is  that  afforded 
by  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Great  Lakes.  The  St.  Lawrence  has 
been  dredged  until  it  now  has  a  minimum  depth  of  thirty  feet,  which 
is  being  increased  to  thirty-five  feet,  from  Montreal  to  tide-water. 
With  the  aid  of  a  number  of  canals,  of  which  the  most  important 
are  the  Welland,  with  a  minimum  depth  of  fourteen  feet,  between 
Lakes  Ontario  and  Erie,  and  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie — commonly  known 
as  the  "  Soo  " — the  minimum  depth  of  which  is  about  twenty 
feet,  between  Lakes  Huron  and  Superior,  navigation  is  possible  as 
far  as  Port  Arthur,  a  distance  of  2,233  miles  from  the  Strait  of 


CANADA  397 

Belle  Isle.  Many  of  the  other  rivers  of  Canada,  such  as  the 
Assiniboine,  the  Red  River,  and  the  Saskatchewan,  are  also  navig- 
able, but  the  traffic  upon  them  is  rather  of  a  local  character,  and 
they  are  not  of  much  use  for  the  transport  of  grain. 

Of  the  schemes  under  consideration  at  present  for  the  improve- 
ment of  Canadian  waterways,  the  most  important  is  that  for  the 
construction  of  a  route  from  Georgian  Bay  to  Montreal  by  way  of 
French  River,  Lake  Nipissing,  and  the  Ottawa.  Such  a  route, 
which  would  shorten  the  existing  waterway  from  Port  Arthur  to 
Montreal  by  about  300  miles,  would  have  a  length  of  about  440 
miles,  of  which  thirty  miles  would  be  purely  artificial,  eighty  miles 
would  consist  of  canalised  lake  and  river,  and  the  remainder  would 
be  entirely  natural.  As  it  is  proposed  to  give  the  canal  a  minimum 
depth  of  twenty-two  feet,  larger  boats  could  be  used  than  those 
which  at  present  make  the  entire  journey  between  Montreal  and 
Port  Arthur,  and,  as  the  time  required  for  each  voyage  would  be 
reduced,  the  amount  of  freight  carried  would  be  increased  and 
the  cost  of  transport  lowered.  The  great  drawback  would  be  that 
which  is  common  to  the  whole  of  the  lake  and  river  system  of 
Canada — the  early-closing  of  navigation  by  ice.  From  about  the 
beginning  of  the  last  week  in  November  till  the  end  of  the  following 
April,  all  shipping  on  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Great  Lakes  has  to 
be  suspended,  and  the  Georgian  Bay  Canal  would,  of  course,  form 
no  exception. 

Commerce. — ^The  foreign  trade  of  Canada  has  made  rapid  pro- 
gress during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century  as  a  result  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  natural  resources  of  the  country.  The  nature  of  the 
advance  is  indicated  by  the  following  figures,  which  show  the 
imports  of  goods  for  consumption  in  Canada,  and  the  export 
of  goods,  the  produce  of  Canada  (coin  and  bullion  not 
included)  : — 


Average 
annual  exports 
in  £  millions. 
1886-90  (5  yrs.)    ..      ..    16-90 

Average 

annual  imports 

in  I  millions. 

21-76 

Average 
annual  total  trade 
in  £  millions. 

38-66 

1906-10  (4  yrs.,  9  mnths.)  49-36 

63-28 

112-64 

The  chief  exports  consist  of  agricultural  produce,  minerals,  and 
timber.  For  the  five  fiscal  years  1906-10  (four  years  and  nine  months 
owing  to  a  change  in  the  date  of  the  termination  of  the  fiscal  year) 


ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 


Bacon    . . 

..     406 

Gold      . . 

. .     3-57 

Wheat  flour      . . 

. .     2-98 

Copper  . . 

. .     2-74 

Fruit      . . 

. .     1-95 

Coal 

..     1-88 

the  percentage  of  the  total  value  of  exports  of  each  of  the  more 
important  items  was  as  follows  : — 

Timber      ..         ..  17-19 

Wheat        ..         ..  15-59 

Cheese       ..         ..  9-39 

Cattle         ..         ..  4-51 

Fish  (cod,  lobster,  salmon)  4*49 
Silver        ..         ..  4-12 

Timber  is  sent  to  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  the 
former  country  taking  the  larger  share.  Wheat,  cheese,  cattle, 
bacon,  wheat  flour,  and  fruit  find  their  chief  market  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  though  a  certain  amount  of  wheat  flour  goes  to  the  Far 
East.  Gold,  silver,  and  copper  are  exported  to  the  United  States, 
where  they  can  be  refined,  and  that  country  is  also  the  chief  pur- 
chaser of  Canadian  coal.  Fish  are  sent  to  various  countries,  while 
wood  pulp  goes  mainly  to  the  United  States. 

Of  the  total  exports  of  Canadian  produce  during  the  same 
fiscal  years  the  United  Kingdom  has  taken  52  per  cent,  and  the 
United  States  36  per  cent. 

About  two-thirds  of  the  imports  into  the  country  for  home 
consumption  consist  of  manufactured  goods.  The  percentage  of 
total  imports  of  the  more  important  articles  is  as  follows  : — 

Iron  and  steel  ..      ..  16-46  Sugar         3-40 

Coal       7-73  Drugs        283 

Woollen  goods  . .     . .  5-93  Raw  cotton          . .      . .  2-35 

Cotton  goods    . .     . .  4-38  Maize        1*77 

Of  iron  and  steel  goods  by  far  the  greater  part  comes  from  the 
United  States,  which  also  supplies  the  coal  imported  by  Canada. 
The  United  Kingdom  is  the  chief  source  of  cotton  and  woollen 
goods.  Sugar  is  obtained  from  the  West  Indies,  and  drugs,  raw 
cotton,  and  maize  from  the  United  States. 

Of  the  total  imports  into  Canada  for  consumption  in  the 
country,  the  United  States  supplies  59  per  cent,  and  the  United 
Kingdom  25  per  cent.  Of  manufactured  goods  the  United  Kingdom 
supplies  about  one-third. 

The  chief  ports  of  the  Dominion  are  Hahfax  and  St.  John,  through 
which  the  Atlantic  trade  is  carried  on  during  the  winter  months ; 


CANADA  999 

Montreal  and  Quebec,  which  conduct  it  duiring  the  summer  months 
when  the  St.  Lawrence  is  open ;  and  Victoria  and  Vancouver  on 
the  Pacific  coast. 

Newfoundland 

The  island  of  Newfoundland  has  an  area  of  42,700  square  miles. 
It  belongs  in  the  main  to  the  Laurentian  region,  though  in  the 
west  there  are  Carboniferous  rocks  which  are  the  continuation  of 
those  in  Cape  Breton  Island.  The  cHmate  is,  on  the  whole,  less 
extreme  than  on  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  mainland.  On  the 
submarine  plateau  to  the  south  and  east  of  the  island,  there  feed 
at  certain  seasons  of  the  year  enormous  quantities  of  fish  which 
have  come  down  from  the  north  with  the  Arctic  current.  Of  these, 
cod  are  the  most  important,  and  dried  cod  and  cod-oil  constitute 
over  70  per  cent,  of  the  total  exports.  In  the  eariier  part  of  the 
year  before  the  cod  have  made  their  appearance,  many  fishermen 
go  sealing  in  the  Arctic.  Lobsters,  herring,  and  salmon  are  also 
caught  along  the  coasts.  In  Bell  Island,  in  the  Bay  of  Conception, 
the  Wabana  mines,  which  now  extend  under  the  sea,  are  said  to 
contain  the  largest  deposits  of  low-grade  iron  ore  in  North  America. 
They  are  extensively  worked,  the  bulk  of  the  product  being  sent  to 
Sydney.  Other  minerals  obtained,  or  known  to  exist,  include 
copper,  coal,  and  silver-lead.  Agriculture  has  hitherto  been  of 
comparatively  Httle  importance,  but,  with  increased  knowledge  of 
the  interior  of  the  island,  the  area  devoted  to  it  is  likely  to  extend. 
Lumbering  and  the  manufacture  of  paper  from  wood-pulp  are  also 
becoming  important. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 

THE  UNITED  STATES* 

New  England. — In  New  England  the  connection  between 
geographical  conditions  and  economic  development  is  of  particular 
interest.  The  country  consists  of  a  raised  peneplain,  high  in  the 
interior,  low  along  the  coast.  This  peneplain  is  being  gradually- 
reduced  to  base  level  by  rivers  which,  when  they  flow  over  rocks 
of  weak  structure,  form  wide  valleys  such  as  that  of  the  Connecticut. 
The  ice-sheet,  which  at  one  time  covered  the  whole  region,  has  left 
its  mark  in  the  scanty  soils  of  the  uplands,  in  the  innumerable 
boulders  in  the  lowlands,  and  in  the  drift-dammed  rivers  where 
many  waterfalls  occur.  The  more  recent  depression  of  the  coast 
has  led  to  the  submergence  of  river  valleys  and  to  the  formation 
of  numerous  bays  and  harbours. 

The  climate  is  cold  in  winter,  when  the  mean  temperature  varies 
from  15°  F.  in  the  north  to  33°  F.  in  the  south,  but  warm  in  summer, 
when  it  rises  from  65°  F.  in  the  north  to  70°  F.  in  the  south.  The 
rainfall,  which  is  fairly  well  distributed  throughout  the  year,  is 
generally  between  40  and  50  inches  in  the  lowlands,  and  between 
35  and  40  inches  in  the  uplands. 

The  early  colonists  settled  near  the  coasts  and  in  the  lowland 
valleys,  agriculture  and  fishing  being  their  chief  occupations ;  and 
it  was  but  slowly  that  they  spread  to  the  less  favoured  uplands. 
With  the  opening  up  of  the  wheatfields  in  the  west,  New  England, 
with  its  soil,  scanty  in  some  places,  boulder-strewn  in  others, 
found  itseW  at  a  disadvantage  in  agriculture,  as  it  was  unable  to 
make  use  of  the  improved  machinery  which  was  reducing  the  cost 
of  production.  Dairjdng,  fruit-farming,  and  the  raising  of  garden 
"  truck  "  are  now  the  chief  pursuits  of  the  agricultural  community, 
but  throughout  the  whole  country  many  farms  have  been  abandoned 
within  the  last  thirty  years. 

1  The  statistics  of  manufactures  are  based  upon  the  Census  of  1905.  The 
Report  on  the  Census  of  1910  has  not  yet  been  published,  but  some  figures 
which  have  come  to  hand  are  given  in  foot-notes.  The  agricultural  and  mineral 
statistics  are  based  upon  the  returns  for  the  three  years  1909-10-11  published 
by  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  and  the  Geological  Survey  respectively. 

400 


THE   UNITED    STATES  401 

Fishing,  another  occupation  of  the  early  settlers,  is  still  carried 
on  from  a  number  of  ports  along  the  New  England  coast.  The 
advantages  possessed  by  the  region  are  the  numerous  good  harbours 
formed  in  the  drowned  river  valleys,  and  the  proximity  of  the 
fishing  grounds  of  Newfoundland  and  the  continental  shelf. 
Gloucester,  in  Massachusetts,  and  Portland,  in  Maine,  are  two 
towns  largely  engaged  in  this  industry;  and  cod,  mackerel,  and 
sardines  are  among  the  principal  products. 

The  growth  of  manufactures  has  been,  however,  the  most  striking 
fact  in  the  economic  development  of  the  New  England  States,  and, 
although  the  place  which  these  States  hold  is  relatively  less  important 
than  it  was  fifty  years  ago,  the  progress  which  they  have  made  has 
been  very  great.  At  the  census  of  1905  it  was  calculated  that, 
with  2*2  per  cent,  of  the  area  of  the  United  States,  they  had  14*7 
per  cent,  of  the  capital  invested  in  manufacturing  industry, 
and  17*2  per  cent,  of  the  average  number  of  wage-earners  engaged 
in  it ;  while  the  value  of  the  products  amounted  to  13-6  that  of  the 
whole  country.  1  Various  causes  have  led  to  this  important 
position.  Domestic  industries  were  naturally  started  by  the 
early  settlers,  and  these  were  developed  during  the  latter  half 
of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  for  a  time  commercial  relations 
with  Great  Britain  were  broken  off.  The  rivers,  with  their  numerous 
waterfalls,  offered  a  plentiful  supply  of  power,  and  climatic  con- 
ditions favoured  the  growth  of  textile  pursuits.  Early  smelting 
furnaces  obtained  their  ore  from  shallow  glacial  ponds  or  marshes, 
and  their  fuel  from  the  neighbouring  forests.  Communications  by 
river  and  sea  faciUtated  both  the  import  of  such  raw  materials 
as  were  required  and  the  export  of  manufactured  goods.  The 
opening  up  of  the  trans-Appalachian  wheatfields,  moreover,  left 
much  labour  and  capital,  hitherto  necessary  for  agriculture,  free 
to  be  employed  in  other  directions.  The  momentmn  acquired 
by  certain  industries  from  these  early  advantages  is  still  effective, 
though  changed  conditions  render  some  of  them  less  important  than 
formerly.  The  rivers,  for  example,  supply  less  than  30  per  cent,  of 
the  power  used,  coal  from  Nova  Scotia  and  Pennsylvania  providing 
the  greater  part  of  the  remainder.  On  the  other  hand,  the  facilities 
for  importing  raw  material   and  exporting  manufactured  goods, 

1  In  1910  the  New  England  States  produced  12-9%  of  the  nianufactures 
of  the  United  States  and  employed  166  %  of  the  wage-earners. 


402  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

and   the  inherited  skill  of  the  workers,  are  now  of  the  utmost 
value. 

The  textile  industries,  which  are  to  a  great  extent  localised  in 
New  England,  are  the  most  important  of  all  its  manufactures.  In 
1905,  practically  half  the  capital  invested  in  works  of  this  description 
in  the  United  States  was  invested  in  the  region  under  consideration, 
which  gave  employment  to  42  per  cent,  of  the  workmen  engaged 
in  such  pursuits.  The  manufacture  of  cotton  goods  takes  first 
place  in  this  group,  and  New  England  possesses  about  60  per  cent, 
of  the  spindles  of  the  whole  country,  Massachusetts  having  three- 
fifths  of  the  number  and  Rhode  Island  one-seventh.  Of  the  cotton 
towns,  the  most  important  is  Fall  River,  situated  on  the  east  of 
Narragansett  Bay,  where  it  is  entered  by  a  small  stream  which 
formerly  provided  the  necessary  power.  Lawrence,  Lowell,  and 
Manchester  make  use  of  the  waters  of  the  Merrimac  to  drive  some 
of  their  mills.  Providence,  at  the  head  of  Narragansett  Bay  and 
on  Providence  River,  is  the  centre  of  the  industry  in  Rhode  Island. 
Notwithstanding  the  recent  great  development  of  cotton  manu- 
factures in  the  Southern  States,  the  country  to  the  east  of  the 
Hudson  still  produces  more  than  50  per  cent,  of  the  total  output. 
There  has,  however,  been  a  great  decrease  in  the  production  of 
medium  counts,  and  an  even  greater  increase  in  that  of  finer  counts, 
and  this  tendency  towards  the  manufacture  of  finer  counts  is  general 
throughout  the  States. 

New  England  produces  about  60  per  cent,  of  the  woollen  manu- 
factures of  the  United  States,  Massachusetts  again  being  the  leading 
state,  Rhode  Island  second,  and  Connecticut  third.  This  industry, 
is  somewhat  more  widely  distributed  throughout  southern  New 
England  than  cotton,  as  in  earher  times  it  was  pursued  to  some 
extent  in  every  farming  district  where  there  was  a  sufficient  water 
supply.  At  present,  therefore,  it  is  carried  on  in  a  large  number 
of  towns,  but  Lawrence  and  Providence  are  the  most  important. 
The  pre-eminence  of  New  England  is  especially  marked  in  the 
manufacture  of  those  classes  of  goods  known  as  "  woollens " 
and  "  worsteds,"  two-thirds  of  the  national  output  of  each  being 
produced  there.  Of  carpets,  it  produces  only  about  one-fifth  of 
those  made  in  the  country.  Boston  is  the  chief  wool  market  of  the 
United  States.  Clothing  wools  are  imported  from  Australasia  and 
the  Argentine,  combing  wools  from  the  British  Isles,  and  carpet 


THE  UNITED  STATES  403 

wools,  which  form  the  bulk  of  the  imports  (brought  mainly  to 
Philadelphia  and  New  York),  from  China  and  Asia  Minor. 

This  group  of  states  also  ranks  first  in  the  manufacture  of  boots 
and  shoes,  producing  more  than  one-half  of  those  made  in  the 
country.  The  early  tanners  and  shoemakers  settled  here,  as 
grazing  was  an  important  pursuit,  and  large  quantities  of  oak  and 
hemlock  could  also  be  obtained  for  tanning.  In  the  manufacture  of 
leather  New  England  has  failed  to  retain  its  supremacy,  but  boots 
and  shoes  are  still  made  by  machinery  where  they  were  so  long  made 
by  hand.  As  steam-power  had  been  introduced  before  the  change 
in  manufacturing  methods,  the  location  of  towns  engaged  in  this 
industry  is  not  determined  by  the  proximity  of  water-power ;  and 
Brockton,  Lynn,  and  Haverhill  are  situated  on  railways  within 
easy  reach  of  Boston,  the  market  both  for  the  leather  and  the 
manufactured  product. 

Though  New  England  now  produces  little  ore,  the  momentum 
which  the  iron  industry  acquired  there  in  colonial  times  has  enabled 
it  to  retain  a  leading  place  in  the  manufacture  of  special  kinds 
of  iron  goods.  Connecticut  makes  large  quantities  of  brassware, 
chiefly  at  the  town  of  Waterbury  ;  and  ammunition  works,  which 
use  brass  to  a  considerable  extent,  are  localised  in  Massachusetts 
and  Connecticut.  Textile  machinery,  as  might  be  expected,  is 
made  in  these  states  and  in  Rhode  Island ;  and  cutlery  and  hard- 
ware of  all  kinds  are  produced  in  the  Connecticut  valley  and  in 
the  western  parts  of  the  state  of  that  name. 

As  a  result  of  the  proximity  of  suitable  timber,  especially  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  region,  the  facilities  for  obtaining  water-power, 
and  the  plentiful  suppUes  of  pure  water,  the  manufacture  of  wood- 
pulp  and  paper  takes  a  high  place  in  this  group  of  states,  which 
accounts  for  nearly  40  per  cent,  of  the  total  output.  Massachusetts 
and  Maine  are  the  leading  paper  states  in  New  England,  and  the 
first  of  these  produces  about  two-thirds  of  the  fine  paper  made  in 
the  United  States. 

The  Middle  Appalachian  Region. — ^The  states  of  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  Eastern  Ohio,  New  Jersey,  Maryland,  Delaware,  and 
West  Virginia  have  a  strong  claim  to  be  treated  as  a  separate  region. 
Their  area  is  less  than  one-twentieth  that  of  the  whole  United 
States,  but  they  have  23  per  cent,  of  the  population,  and  in  1905 
they  had  40  per  cent,  of  the  capital  invested  in  manufactures,  37 


404  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

per  cent,  of  the  wage-earning  classes,  and  38  per  cent,  of  the  gross 
value  of  the  products.^ 

Geographical  conditions  have  determined,  to  a  great  extent,  the 
economic  growth  shown  by  these  remarkable  figures.  The  region 
belongs  essentially  to  the  Appalachian  system,  the  coastal  and  lake 
plains  being  developed  only  to  a  slight  extent.  During  glacial 
times  the  continental  ice-sheet  covered  nearly  the  whole  of  New 
York  and  the  northern  parts  of  Pennsylvania  and  New  Jersey, 
leaving  in  many  valleys  a  deep  and  generally  fertile  soil,  and  offering 
numerous  facilities  for  the  use  of  water-power.  On  the  Piedmont 
and  Allegheny  plateaus,  and  in  the  Great  Valley,  there  are  many 
districts  capable  of  cultivation. 

As  a  result  of  its  position  and  varied  topography,  the  climate  of 
the  region  is  not  the  same  throughout,  but  on  the  whole  the  winters 
are  cold  and  the  summers  warm.  The  mean  winter  temperature 
ranges  from  17°  F.  to  21°  F.  in  the  north  of  New  York  state  to 
30°  F.  to  35°  F.  in  Maryland  and  Delaware,  and  the  mean  summer 
temperature  from  60°  F.  to  65°  F.  in  the  northern  districts  to  70°  F. 
to  75°  F.  in  the  southern.  Over  the  greater  part  of  New  York 
state  the  rainfall  is  from  35  to  40  inches  annually,  and  over  the 
remainder  of  the  region  from  40  to  45  inches. 

The  surface  of  the  land  is  too  diversified  to  permit  the  Middle 
Appalachian  States  becoming  a  great  agricultural  region,  and, 
although  they  produce  between  6  and  7  per  cent,  of  the  wheat  and 
oats,  and  4  per  cent,  of  the  maize,  grown  in  the  country,  "  truck  " 
farming  and  dairying  are  the  most  important  agricultural  pursuits, 
the  former  being  followed  chiefly  on  the  Piedmont  Plateau  and  in 
the  Great  Valley,  where  soil  and  climate  are  favourable,  and  the 
latter  mainly  on  the  Allegheny  Plateau,  where  the  altitude  and 
damp  climate  are  unfavourable  to  cultivation.  New  York  is  the 
most  important  dairying  state  in  the  Union. 

The  second  factor  of  importance  in  the  economic  develop- 
ment of  this  region  is  its  enormous  supplies  of  coal.  Anthracite, 
obtained  nowhere  else  in  the  United  States  but  in  two  small  coal- 
fields in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  is  worked  here  in  large  quantities, 
the  mines  being  found  in  the  east  central  part  of  Pennsylvania,  ic 
a  district  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Susquehanna,  on  the  north 

^  In  1910,  24  %  of  the  population,  36  %  of  the  wage-earning  classes 
engaged  in  manufactures,  and  38  %  of  the  gross  value  of  the  products. 


406  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

by  the  north  branch  of  that  river,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Delaware 
and  Lehigh  rivers.  The  production  for  1909-11  averaged  76,000,000 
tons.  Anthracite  is  now  used  chiefly  as  a  domestic  fuel,  for  which 
it  is  valued  on  account  of  its  cleanliness,  its  freedom  from  smoke, 
and  its  excellent  heating  qualities.  The  demand  for  it  is  largely 
local,  Pennsylvania  and  New  York  taking  a  great  part  of  the  output, 
Bituminous  coal,  which  occurs  throughout  the  whole  length  o: 
the  Appalachian  system,  is  obtained  chiefly  in  west  Pennsylvania, 
eastern  Ohio,  West  Virginia,  and  Maryland.  The  beds  usually 
run  in  long  curves  from  north-east  to  south-west,  following  the 
general  trend  of  Appalachian  folding.  The  coal  is  easily  worked, 
and  the  greater  part  is  won  by  drifts  along  the  outcrop,  or  by  gentle 
slopes  down  the  dip  of  the  bed,  very  few  deep  mines  having  as  yet 
been  sunk.  The  production  from  the  Pennsylvania  fields  in  1909-11 
averaged  128,000,000  tons,  from  Ohio  27,000,000  tons,  from 
West  Virginia  51,000,000  tons,  and  from  Maryland  4,000,000  tons. 
This  amounted  in  all  to  almost  one-half  of  the  total  coal  production 
of  the  United  States.  Pennsylvanian  coal,  especially  that  from  the 
Pittsburg  seam,  is  used  in  aU  the  industries  of  Pennsylvania  anc 
New  York.  Large  quantities  make  their  way  to  tide-water  ai 
Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  and  New  York,  to  be  shipped  north  anc 
south  along  the  Atlantic  coast,  while  much  goes  by  water  routej 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  considerable  quantities  are  sent  by  th( 
Great  Lakes  to  various  ports  in  the  North  Central  States  and  Canada 
About  one-half  of  the  coke  manufactured  in  the  country  come! 
from  the  Connellsville  region  on  the  Pittsburg  seam,  and  is  dis 
tributed  over  the  greater  part  of  industrial  North  America.  Wesi 
Virginia  consumes  comparatively  little  of  its  own  coal,  and  th< 
output  of  the  well-known  Pocahontas  field  (a  small  part  of  whicl 
lies  in  Virginia)  and  other  producing  districts  goes  either  to  tide 
water  at  Norfolk,  or,  by  the  Kanawha,  to  the  Ohio  river.  Th( 
Ohio  mines  send  part  of  their  output  to  Canada  by  the  Great  Lakes 
while  a  considerable  proportion  of  Maryland  coal  finds  its  waj 
to  the  coast  by  the  railways  following  the  Potomac. 

The  position  of  this  group  of  states  has  been  an  importan 
factor  in  their  economic  development.  Their  seaboard  is  conveni 
ently  situated  with  regard  to  Europe,  and,  although  New  York  i 
a  hundred  miles  further  from  England  than  Boston  is,  it  has  i 
much  larger  hinterland,  Boston  being  cut  off  from  the   interioi 


THE  UNITED   STATES  407 

by  the  Hoosac  Mountains  of  Massachusetts.  New  York,  Phila- 
delphia, and  Baltimore  are  all  favoured  in  regard  to  their  com- 
munications with  the  interior.  Behind  them,  the  older  Appala- 
chians are  much  lower  and  narrower  than  in  any  other  part  of 
their  course,  and  they  are  crossed  also  by  several  great  rivers — 
the  Delaware,  Susquehanna,  and  Potomac — which,  by  means  of  the 
water  gaps  they  have  cut,  afford  easy  access  to  the  continental 
interior.  Further,  in  this  region,  the  ranges  of  the  Great  Valley 
lie  to  the  west,  and  the  Valley  itself  is  open  and  was  easily  occupied 
in  earlier  times,  thus  aiding  in  the  development  of  the  towns  on  the 
coast.  The  Delaware  and  the  Susquehanna,  morebver,  are  navigaBle 
and  make  useful  waterways,  but  the  Potomac  is  generally  unsuitable 
for  such  a  purpose. 

The  Great  Lakes  on  the  north-west  have  also  played  an  important 
part  in  the  development  of  the  Middle  Appalachian  States  by  pro- 
viding a  waterway  on  which  can  be  cheaply  carried  much  of  the 
raw  material  necessary  for  many  of  the  industries  established  in 
the  region.  Of  great  significance,  too,  are  the  easy  facilities  which 
exist  for  communication  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Lakes  by 
means  of  the  valleys  of  the  Hudson  and  Mohawk  rivers.  Lastly, 
the  Allegheny  and  Monongahela,  which  along  with  their  tributaries 
drain  the  Allegheny  Plateau,  have,  as  already  indicated,  rendered 
possible  water  transport,  by  way  of  the  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi, 
to  the  central  and  southern  states. 

The  most  important  industry  of  the  Middle  Appalachian  States 
is  the  manufacture  of  iron  and  steel.  A  certain  amount  of  ore  is 
found  in  the  ridges  of  the  Great  Valley  in  Pennsylvania  and  in  New 
York,  and,  until  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  the  deposits  from 
which  it  is  obtained  were  the  chief  source  of  supply.  But  the 
development  of  the  Lake  Superior  ores,  and  the  greatly  increased 
use  of  coke  in  place  of  anthracite  in  smelting  iron,  have  caused  the 
industry  to  move  further  west,  and  it  is  now  concentrated  to  a  great 
extent  in  west  Pennsylvania  where  it  is  easy  to  obtain  coke 
from  the  Connellsville  district  and  ore  from  Lake  Superior.  In 
1905  the  regiop  under  consideration  had  invested  in  it  more  than 
half  the  capital  invested  in  iron  and  steel  works  in  the  United  States, 
while  of  the  total  output  it  produced  nearly  two-thirds.  Pennsyl- 
vania is,  of  course,  the  leading  state,  and  produces  two-fifths  of  the 
pig-iron  and  more  than  half  the  steel  of  the  whole  country.     The 

26 — (1326) 


408  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

chief  towns  engaged  in  the  industry  are  Pittsburg  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Allegheny  and  Monongahela,  Homestead  and  Duquesne  ii 
the  valley  of  the  latter  river,  and  McKeesport  in  that  of  its  tributarj 
the  Youghiogheny,  all  admirably  situated  for  receiving  coal  anc 
coke,  Cleveland  and  Buffalo  on  Lake  Erie,  Youngstown  ii 
Ohio,  and  Easton  and  Allentown  near  the  iron  ore  deposits  of  th( 
Great  Valley. 

The  manufacture  of  what  are  known  as  "  foundry  and  machine 
shop  products  "  is  carried  on  to  a  great  extent  in  this  region  wher< 
iron  and  steel  and  coal  can  easily  be  obtained,  and  where  the  large 
industrial  population  creates  a  strong  demand.  Of  the  total  output 
in  the  United  States  of  such  articles,  which  range  in  variety  from 
steam  rollers  to  nut-crackers,  and  from  motor  engines  to  sewingj 
machines,  about  one-half  is  produced  in  this  region,  the  chief  towns 
engaged  including  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Buffalo,  Pittsburg, 
Erie,  Newark,  and  Columbus. 

The  textile  pursuits  of  the  Middle  Appalachian  Region  rank  iii| 
importance  after  those  of  New  England,  but  several  striking  differ- 
ences are  to  be  noted.  The  spinning  and  weaving  of  cotton  is  oi 
comparatively  little  account,  and  the  output,  which  in  gross  valuq 
amounts  to  about  one-third  that  of  the  textile  industries  of  the  Unitec 
States,  consists  chiefly  of  woollen  and  silk  goods.  Pennsylvania 
and  New  York  are  the  principal  carpet-making  states  in  the  Union, 
Philadelphia,  where  the  industry  has  been  established  for  over 
century,  being  the  chief  town  engaged  in  it.  Silk  is  manufacturec 
mainly  in  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  York,  New  Jersej 
alone  accounting  for  one-third  of  the  silk  goods  of  the  country, 
and  Paterson,  which  derives  its  water-power  from  the  Passaic 
River,  being  the  centre  of  the  industry.  As  much  of  the  raw  materia 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  carpets  and  silk  goods  comes  from  the 
East,  the  facilities  for  importing  it  into  this  region  would  appeal 
to  be  one  of  the  reasons  for  the  localisation  of  these  industries. 

The  manufacture  of  clothing  is  another  industry  which  is  localisec 
to  a  remarkable  extent  in  the  Middle  Appalachian  States,  which 
produce  70  per  cent,  of  the  output  of  the  whole  country,  New  York 
City  alone  providing  over  50  per  cent.  This  is  accounted  for  in 
part  by  New  York  being  the  commercial  and  social  capital  of  the 
United  States,  but  it  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  laboui 
required  in  the  industry  is  almost  entirely  recruited  from  thosi 


THE   UNITED   STATES  409 

immigrants  who  enter  by  the  port  of  New  York,  but,  being  unfitted 
for  agriculture,  do  not  pass  into  the  interior.  No  less  than  98  per 
cent,  of  the  tailors  and  tailoresses  employed  in  New  York  are  of 
foreign  birth  or  of  foreign  parentage. 

In  addition,  among  the  important  industries  of  this  region  are 
the  tanning  of  leather  and  the  manufacture  of  wood  pulp,  because 
of  the  proximity  of  raw  materials  in  the  Appalachian  forest ;  the 
refining  of  petroleum  from  the  Allegheny  plateau,  and  of  sugar 
imported  at  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  elsewhere ;  the  printing 
and  publishing  of  books  and  newspapers,  flour-milling,  meat  packing, 
and  car  construction. 

The  dominant  factors  in  the  economic  development  of  the  Middle 
Appalachian  States  are,  therefore,  their  vast  mineral  resources  and 
their  favourable  situation,  alike  with  regard  to  Europe  and  with 
regard  to  the  interior  of  the  continent.  It  is  noteworthy,  as  illus- 
trating the  importance  of  the  latter  factor,  that,  although  seven  out  of 
the  fifteen  largest  cities  in  the  United  States  are  situated  within  this 
region,  only  one  lies  within  the  borders  of  the  Appalachian  coalfield. 
The  growth  of  the  others  as  manufacturing  centres  is  due  to  the 
facilities  which  they  possess  for  the  collection  of  raw  material  and  the 
distribution  of  manufactured  goods ;  and  similar  facilities  for  collect- 
ing exports  and  distributing  imports  have  made  several  of  them  into 
great  seaports.  New  York  is  most  favourably  situated  in  this 
respect,  because  it  has  not  only  the  same  advantages  as  Philadelphia 
and  Baltimore  for  access  to  the  interior  by  means  of  the  routes 
created  by  the  transverse  Appalachian  rivers,  but  it  is  at  the  outlet 
of  the  Hudson  Valley,  which  brings  it  into  communication  both 
with  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Great  Lakes.  Philadelphia  and 
Baltimore,  although  they  have  the  advantage  of  being  situated 
on  waterways  which  penetrate  well  into  the  interior,  are  not  quite 
so  conveniently  placed  for  carrying  on  trade  with  Europe,  nor  have 
they  the  same  choice  of  routes  to  the  trans-Appalachian  States  as 
New  York  has.  Buffalo  owes  its  importance  to  its  position  on  Lak"e~ 
Erie,  at  the  termination  of  the  route  followed  by  the  Erie  Canal. 
The  situation  of  Pittsburg  in  relation  to  the  Appalachian  coalfield 
has  already  been  described.  Newark  and  Jersey  City  share  in 
many  of  the  advantages  of  New  York. 

The  North  Central  Region. — ^This  region,  which  lies  west  of 
the  Allegheny  Plateau  and  east  of  the  Great  Plains,  south  of  the 


410  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

international  boundary  and  north  of  the  Ozark  uplift,  is  the  great 
agricultural,  and  the  second  most  important  manufacturing,  area 
of  the  United  States.  Broadly  speaking,  the  land,  which  rises  in 
all  directions  from  the  Mississippi,  is  fiat  or  undulating,  and  only 
in  comparatively  few  places  is  it  mountainous.  In  the  north,  in 
parts  of  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota,  there  are  outliers  of 
the  Laurentian  area  which  contain  much  mineral  wealth.  The 
greater  part  of  the  region  was  at  one  time  covered  by  the  ice-sheet, 
and  the  soil,  consisting  of  the  debris  of  different  kinds  of  rock,  is 
generally  fertile,  while  it  is  underlain  in  places  by  extensive  deposits 
of  coal. 

The  climate  is  continental  in  character ;  the  range  between  the 
heat  of  summer  and  the  cold  of  winter  is  considerable ;  and  pre- 
cipitation decreases  from  the  east  toward  the  west  and  north-west. 
Over  the  greater  part  of  North  Dakota  the  mean  temperature  for 
the  three  coldest  months  is  from  5°  F.  to  10°  F.,  while  in  Kansas 
it  is  from  29°  F.  to  33°  F.  The  mean  summer  temperature  varies 
from  65°  F.  to  70°  F.  in  the  northern  states  to  between  74°  F.  and 
78°  F.  in  the  southern.  In  the  extreme  east  of  the  region  the 
annual  precipitation  is  between  40  and  45  inches,  while  along  the 
western  boundary  it  ranges  from  between  25  and  30  inches  in 
Kansas  to  between  15  and  20  inches  in  North  Dakota, 

The  following  figures  are  typical  of  the  climatic  conditions  of 
different  parts  of  the  area  under  consideration  : — 


Winter  mean. 

Summer  mean. 

Precipitation. 

Columbus  (Ohio)  . . 

31°  F. 

73°  F. 

37-2  inches. 

Bloomington  (111.) 

26° 

74° 

361 

Topeka  (Kansas) 

30° 

76° 

341 

Grand  Forks  (N.D.) 

8° 

65° 

201 

Physical  features,  soil,  and  climate  alike  constitute  this  region 
the  most  important  in  the  United  States  for  the  production  of 
cereals.  The  surface  of  the  land  offers  few  obstacles  to  the  use 
of  machinery,  the  fertility  of  the  soil  encourages  extensive  rather 
than  intensive  methods  of  cultivation,  and  the  temperature  and 
rainfall  are  sufficient  for  the  growth  of  wheat  throughout  the  whole 
region,  and  for  the  growth  of  maize  in  its  southern  half. 

The  North  Central  States  produce  about  two-thirds  of  the 
wheat  crop  of  the  country.    North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  and 


THE   UNITED   STATES  411 

Minnesota,  whose  most  fertile  parts  belong  to  the  bed  of  the  glacial 
Lake  Agassiz,  form  the  chief  hard  spring  wheat  region  and  yield  over 
one-fourth  of  the  United  States  crop.  Further  south,  in  the  region 
of  hard  winter  wheat,  Nebraska,  Kansas,  and  Missouri  produce 
one-fifth  of  the  year's  supply,  and  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Ohio, 
which  grow  semi-hard  winter  wheat,  one-seventh.  The  development 
of  the  spring  wheat  area  within  the  last  thirty  years  has  been 
largely  due  to  the  improvements  in  flour-milling  machinery  which 
have  made  it  possible  to  remove  from  the  flour  of  spring  wheat 
all  the  fine  particles  of  bran,  the  presence  of  which  had  hitherto 
affected  both  its  colour  and  quality.  On  the  other  hand,  there 
has  been  a  great  decrease  in  the  area  under  wheat  in  Illinois,  Iowa, 
and  Wisconsin,  due  partly  to  the  increased  cultivation  of  maize 
in  these  states,  but  chiefly  to  the  deterioration  of  the  land  as  the 
result  of  a  long  succession  of  wheat  crops.  Mixed  farming  is  much 
more  generally  adopted  now,  though  in  the  Dakotas  wheat  is  still 
the  prevailing  crop. 

The  yield  per  acre  is  small :  only  in  the  east  has  the  average 
for  the  last  ten  years  exceeded  fifteen  bushels ;  elsewhere  it  is 
usually  somewhat  below  that  amount.  With  the  favourable 
conditions  of  soil  and  climate  which  prevail,  it  is  obvious  that  the 
future  will  see  a  considerable  increase  in  the  yield  per  acre,  as 
increasing  demand  brings  the  land  under  more  intensive  cultivation. 

The  manufacture  of  flour  has  naturally  become  an  important 
industry  in  the  North  Central  Region,  which  in  1905  produced 
nearly  two-thirds^  of  the  American  supply.  Minnesota  is  the 
leading  state,  and  it  is  followed  by  Kansas,  Missouri,  and  lUinois. 
The  chief  towns  engaged  in  the  industry  are  Minneapolis,  which  in 
earlier  times  derived  its  power  from  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony, 
though  much  is  now  obtained  from  steam  ;  Milwaukee  and  Chicago, 
which  have  excellent  shipping  facilities  ;  and  St.  Louis,  the  centre 
of  the  winter  wheat  region,  which  is  able  to  export  both  to  the  Gi:lf 
of  Mexico  and  the  Atlantic  seaboard. 

Maize,  which  requires  a  higher  summer  temperature  and  a 
greater  rainfall  than  wheat,  is  grown  in  large  quantities  in  the 
southern  parts  of  the  North  Central  States.  Western  Ohio,  Indiana, 
Illinois,  and  Iowa  produce  over  30  per  cent,  of  the  maize  crop  of  the 
United  States,  and  along  with  Missouri,  Nebraska,  and    Kansas, 

1  In  1910.  three  fifths. 


412  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

where  decreasing  precipitation  accounts  in  part  for  a  smaflS 
yield  per  acre,  they  produce  considerably  more  than  one-half  of 
the  output  of  the  whole  country. 

Since  1890  the  area  under  maize  has  increased  from  35,000,000 
acres  to  about  60,000,000  acres,  a  result  largely  due  to  the  growth 
of  the  live-stock  industry.  Many  cattle  are  reared  in  the  region, 
and  many  others  are  drafted  in  from  the  Great  Plateaus,  as  far  south 
as  Texas,  to  be  "  finished "  for  market.  The  rapid  growth  of 
population,  both  in  the  North  Central  and  in  the  Middle  Atlantic 
States,  has  greatly  increased  the  demand  for  meat  and  dairy  produce, 
while  the  development  of  transport  and  the  use  of  refrigerating  cars 
have  made  it  easy  to  meet  that  demand.  The  number  of  cattle  in  the 
region  under  consideration  cannot  be  determined  exactly,  but  it 
is  probably  about  32,000,000  (United  States  70,000,000).  Hogs 
are  even  more  concentrated  in  the  maize  belt,  and  over  half  of  the 
entire  number  in  the  United  States  (48,000,000)  are  found  within  it. 

Over  70  per  cent,  of  the  slaughtering  and  meat  packing  of  the 
United  States  is  done  in  the  North  Central  Region,  where  the 
industry  is  to  the  maize  belt  what  the  manufacture  of  flour  is  to 
the  wheat  fields.  Chicago  is  the  chief  city  engaged,  and  produces 
nearly  30  per  cent,  of  the  country's  output.  It  owes  its  pre-eminence, 
on  the  one  hand,  to  its  suitable  position  for  receiving  live  stock 
from  the  whole  of  the  north-west,  and,  on  the  other,  to  its 
facilities  for  distributing  the  manufactured  product.  Kansas  City 
and  South  Omaha,  which  practically  do  nothing  else,  have  become 
of  considerable  importance  within  recent  years  with  the  extension 
of  the  com  belt  in  Nebraska  and  Kansas ;  and  East  St.  Louis,  St. 
Joseph,  and  Indian opolis  has  each  a  large  output.  With  the  excep- 
tion of  New  York,  which  produces  one-twentieth  of  the  whole, 
the  leading  cities  in  this  industry  are  in  the  maize-growing  states. 

In  addition  to  its  great  agricultural  resources,  the  North  Central 
Region  has  much  mineral  wealth,  and  three  large  coalfields  of 
Carboniferous  age  He  within  it.  The  most  important  of  these  is 
the  Eastern,  which  covers  most  of  Illinois,  the  south-western  corner 
of  Indiana,  and  a  small  portion  of  Kentucky.  The  output  of  this 
field  amounts  to  over  65,000,000  tons,  or  rather  more  than 
one-seventh  that  of  the  United  States,  and  the  coal  from  it,  besides 
supplying  a  large  contiguous  manufacturing  area,  makes  its 
way  down  the  Mississippi  as  far  as  Louisiana,  and  westward  into 


THE  UNITED   STATES  413 

the  Dakotas,  Nebraska,  and  other  states.  The  Northern  coalfield, 
which  lies  in  the  centre  of  the  lower  peninsula  of  Michigan,  has  an 
annual  output  of  over  1,000,000  tons,  much  of  which  is  used  locally, 
but  some  of  which  goes  westward  into  Minnesota  and  the  Dakotas, 
as  a  return  cargo  for  the  cars  bringing  wheat  eastward.  The  Western 
coalfield  extends  over  parts  of  Iowa,  Kansas,  Missouri, 
Oklahoma,  and  Arkansas,  the  portion  within  the  region  under 
consideration  producing  about  20,000,000  tons  annually,  most  of 
which  is  used  locally,  either  by  the  railways  or  for  domestic  purposes. 

In  the  North  Central  Region,  as  in  the  Allegheny  Plateau,  the 
horizontal  nature  of  the  strata  has  led  to  the  conservation  of  large 
supplies  of  petroleum.  The  chief  fields  are  those  of  western  Ohio 
and  Indiana,  of  Illinois,  and  of  Kansas — ^the  latter  extending  into 
Oklahoma  and  northern  Texas.  The  production  of  the  first  is 
decreasing,  that  of  the  second  is  steady,  while  the  third  has  an 
output  considerably  greater  than  the  first  and  second  combined. 
The  production  of  the  whole  region  amounts  to  rather  less  than 
half  that  of  the  United  States,  which  yield  two-thirds  of  the 
world's  supply.  Pipe  lines  convey  the  oil  from  lUinois  to  the 
Atlantic  seaboard,  and  that  from  Kansas  to  the  Gulf.  Natural  gas  is 
obtained  in  Indiana  and  Kansas,  but  the  production  is  decreasing. 

The  principal  localities  in  North  America  which  at  present 
produce  iron  ore  may  be  considered  as  falling  within  this  region, 
although  they  really  belong  to  the  Laurentian  Plateau,  of  which 
they  form  outlying  parts.  Over  80  per  cent,  of  the  iron  ore  obtained 
in  the  United  States  is  mined  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Lake  Superior, 
where  the  chief  districts  in  which  it  is  found  are  the  Mesabi  Range 
in  Minnesota,  to  the  west  of  Lake  Superior,  the  Vermilion  Range, 
a  httle  to  the  north  of  the  Mesabi,  the  Marquette,  in  the  upper 
peninsula  of  Michigan,  and  the  Menominee  and  Gogebic  Ranges 
further  south,  on  the  borders  of  Michigan  and  Wisconsin.  The  total 
production  for  1910  was  40,000,000  tons,  of  which  30,000,000  came 
from  the  Mesabi  Range. 

As  coal  is  not  available  for  smelting  the  ore  in  the  localities  in 
which  it  is  mined,  it  is  shipped  from  Duluth,  Superior,  Two  Har- 
bours, Ashland,  and  Marquette  on  Lake  Superior,  and  from  Escanaba 
on  Lake  Michigan,  to  various  ports  on  Lakes  Michigan  and  Erie. 
At  Milwaukee  and  Chicago  on  the  first  of  these,  and  at  Cleveland, 
Erie,  and  Buffalo  on  the  second,  the  manufacture  of  pig-iron  has 


414  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

become  an  important  industry ;  while  from  Ashtabula,  Conneaut 
and  Erie,  all  on  Lake  Erie,  very  large  quantities  of  raw  ore  are 
sent  to  the  Pittsburg  district,  Youngstown,  and  other  places, 
either  on,  or  in  the  vicinity  of,  the  coalfields  of  the  Middle  Appala- 
chian States.  In  the  North  Central  Region  itself,  the  production 
of  iron  and  steel  amounts  to  between  one-fourth  and  one-fifth  that 
of  the  United  States,  the  chief  towns  engaged  being  situated  on  the 
lakes  to  which  ore  and  coal  can  both  be  transported  at  low  rates. 

In  the  Lake  Superior  region  of  the  upper  peninsula  of  Michigan, 
there  is  a  strip  of  land  about  seventy  miles  long  and  one  mile  wide 
which  is  at  present  the  most  important  native  copper  district  of 
the  world.  The  copper,  which  occurs  in  masses  varying  from  small 
particles  to  lumps  of  several  hundred  tons  in  weight,  is  obtained 
from  mines  sometimes  a  mile  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
The  output  is  about  one-fifth  that  of  the  whole  country.  Coal  for 
smelting  and  other  purposes  is  easily  obtained  by  water  from 
Pennsylvania,  and  a  considerable  amount  of  ore  goes  eastward, 
by  the  same  route,  on  its  way  to  the  states  of  New  York  and  New 
Jersey,  where  it  is  smelted  at  Buffalo,  New  York,  and  Jersey  City. 

Among  other  industries  the  manufacture  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments is  perhaps  the  most  characteristic  of  the  North  Central 
Region.  The  great  demand  for  every  kind  of  field  machinery  from 
the  prairie  states,  the  proximity  of  iron  and  coal,  the  facilities  for 
obtaining  hard  timber,  and  the  bulky  nature  of  the  finished  goods, 
all  account  for  the  fact  that  here  is  produced  70  per  cent,  of  the 
total  output  of  the  United  States.  Chicago  and  Moline  in  Illinois, 
Racine  in  Wisconsin,  and  Springfield  in  Ohio  are  among  the  leading 
towns  engaged  in  the  industry. 

The  lumber  industry  of  the  region  is  located  chiefly  in  the  states 
of  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  and  Minnesota,  which  fall  within  the 
northern  pine  province.  The  manufacture  of  wood  pulp  and  paper  is 
also  carried  on  to  some  extent,  especially  in  Michigan  and  Wisconsin. 

At  the  census  of  1900  it  was  shown  that  rather  more  than  one- 
third  of  the  glass  made  in  the  United  States  came  from  this  region, 
chiefly  from  Indiana,  but  the  decreased  output  of  the  gas  wells  in 
that  state  has  led  to  a  relative  decline  within  recent  years. 

The  economic  development  of  the  North  Central  States  is  therefore 
the  result  of  a  remarkable  combination  of  geographical  factors. 
The  prosperity  of  the  region  is  based  upon  the  great  agricultural 


THE   UNITED   STATES  415 

resources  due  to  its  flat  or  undulating  surface,  its  fertile  soils,  and 
its  favourable  but  diverse  climate.  The  large  supplies  of  fuel 
within  its  borders,  and  the  still  larger  supplies  which  can  be  easily 
obtained  from  the  Appalachian  fields  beyond,  enable  it  to  export 
these  agricultural  products,  not  as  raw  materials,  but  as  manu- 
factured goods.  The  presence  of  iron  ore  and  timber  has  facilitatedj 
the  growth  of  these  and  other  industries,  and  the  momentum  thus 
obtained  has  aided  the  further  industrial  development  of  the 
region.  The  Great  Lakes  provide  a  means  of  cheap  transportation 
which  has  been  of  immense  value,  while  few  physical  obstacles 
hinder  the  construction  of  railways,  nor  is  communication  with 
the  Atlantic  and  the  Gulf  a  matter  of  great  difficulty.  The  position 
of  the  more  important  cities  indicates  the  nature  of  the  forces  that 
have  been  at  work.  They  are  primarily  collecting  and  distributing 
centres,  and,  because  of  their  position  as  such,  have  become  manu- 
facturing as  well.  Chicago  is  in  a  sense  typical  of  the  whole  region. 
It  is  situated  where  the  great  railroads  from  the  east  to  the  north- 
west must  all  converge  in  order  to  turn  the  southern  end  of  Lake 
Michigan,  and  it  is  therefore  a  great  meeting  place  of  land  and  water 
routes.  To  it  can  easily  be  brought  the  wheat  of  the  Dakotas  and 
Minnesota,  the  live  stock  of  the  maize  belt  and  the  Great  Plateaus, 
the  iron  ore  of  Michigan,  the  wood  of  Wisconsin,  the  coal  of  Pennsyl- 
vania. Thus,  being  the  collecting  centre  for  the  varied  products 
of  a  large  and  rich  area,  it  has  become  a  great  manufacturing  town, 
with  special  facilities  for  the  export  of  its  manufactures,  and  with 
similar  facilities  for  the  import  of  other  commodities  and  for  their 
distribution  over  the  region  from  which  it  obtains  its  raw  materials. 
Chicago,  it  is  well  said,  "  is  the  epitome  and  climax  of  the  prairie 
and  lake  region." 

The  Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coastal  Plain. — ^This  region  is  of 
comparatively  recent  origin,  its  elevation  nowhere  exceeds  500  feet, 
the  rocks  of  which  it  is  composed  are  weak  and  unconsoHdated, 
and  it  is  generally,  though  not  always,  covered  with  a  deep  and 
fertile  soil.  Its  southern  position,  low  relief,  and  proximity  to  the 
ocean  have  given  it  a  climate,  moist,  warm,  and  on  the  whole 
equable.  Only  in  Virginia  and  in  Tennessee  does  the  mean 
winter  temperature  fall  below  40°  F.,  while  the  mean  summer 
temperature  over  the  whole  region  ranges  from  75°  F.  to  83°  F.  The 
precipitation  as  far  west  as  the  ninety-third  meridian  is  from  50  to 


416  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

55  inches,  except  in  South  CaroUna  and  Georgia,  where  it  does  not 
exceed  50  inches.  Beyond  the  ninety-third  meridian  the  rainfall 
rapidly  diminishes  in  amount,  and  near  the  hundredth,  that  is  in 
the  west  of  the  southern  prairies,  which  for  convenience  are  con- 
sidered along  with  the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coastal  Plain,  it  does  not 
exceed  20  inches. 

Throughout  almost  the  whole  of  this  region,  as  well  as  in  parts  of 
the  Piedmont  Plateau,  the  cultivation  of  the  cotton  plant  is  the 
chief  pursuit  of  the  agricultural  population.  Climatic  conditions 
are  of  the  utmost  import am:ejnbringing.this  about.  I'he  proximity 
of  the^tlaMiclind  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  prevents  the  great  extremes 
of  climate  which  are  characteristic  of  continental  masses,  and  ensures 
a  sufficiently  long  growing  season.  The  temperature  increases 
until  the  maximum  is  reached  in  July,  after  which  there  is  not 
only  a  somewhat  lower  temperature,  but  a  greater  diurnal  range. 
In  the  spring  the  cyclonic  disturbances,  originating  on  the  plains  of 
Texas  and  moving  in  a  north-easterly  direction,  cause  an  inflow  of 
warm,  moist  air  from  the  ocean.  As  the  summer  advances,  the 
low-pressure  area,  developing  over  the  continent,  leads  to  a  steady 
atmospheric  inflow  from  the  sea  to  the  land  and  a  heavier  rainfall. 
In  August,  the  land  has  cooled  slightly,  while  the  air  temperature 
over  the  ocean  is  at  its  highest.  The  temperature  gradient  is 
therefore  not  so  steep,  and  there  is  that  decrease  in  precipitation, 
except  along  the  coasts,  which  tends  to  check  the  growth  of  the 
cotton  plant,  and  enables  it  to  mature  its  seed.  The  region  under 
consideration  covers  an  area  of  about  600,000  square  miles,  but  it 
must  not  be  thought  of  as  exclusively  devoted  to  the  cultivation 
of  cotton.  More  than  half  of  it  is  still  forested,  only  about  60  per 
cent,  is  in  farms,  not  more  than  30  per  cent,  has  been  "  improved," 
and  the  area  under  cotton,  probably  not  more  than  10  per  cent,  of 
the  whole,  is  exceeded  by  that  under  maize  within  the  same  region. 

The  figures  that  appear  on  the  next  page  indicate  the  nature 
of  the  change  which  has  taken  place  in  the  location  of  the  cotton 
fields  within  the  last  sixty  years. 

The  great  development  within  recent  years  of  the  cotton-growing 
area  to  the  west  of  the  Mississippi  is  due  in  part  to  the  exhaustion 
of  the  soil  to  the  east  of  it,  largely  as  a  result  of  the  wasteful  methods 
of  ante-bellum  cultivation,  and  in  part  to  the  greater  facility  with 
which  the  virgin  lands  of  Texas  can  be  brought  under  the  plough. 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


417 


1850. 

1911. 

State. 

Per  cent. 

State. 

Per  cent. 

of  production. 

of  production. 

Alabama . .     . . 

22-9  (564,429  bales 

Texas     . .      . . 

27-4  (4.447,648  bales  ) 

Georgia  . .      . . 

20-2  (499,091       „ 

)    Georgia  . .      . . 

17-5  (2,845.799     „       ) 

Mississippi     . . 

19-6  (484.292       „ 

Alabama 

10-8  (1,757.207     „       ) 

South  Carolina 

12-2  (300,901       „ 

)     South  Carolina 

10-4  (1.684,096     „       ) 

Tennessee 

7-9  (194.532       „  ) 

Mississippi     . . 

7-7  (1.252,322     „       ) 

Louisiana 

7-2  (178,737       „ 

North  Carohna 

6-8  (1.104,781     „       ) 

North  Carolina 

3-0     (73.845       ..  ] 

Oklahoma      . . 

6-5  (1,062.922     „       ) 

Arkansas 

2-6     (65,344       .. 

Arkansas 

6.0      (972.296     „       ) 

Texas     . .      . . 

2-4     (58.072       ., 

Tennessee 

2-9     (479,145     „       ) 

Florida 

1-8     (45,131       .. 

1    Louisiana 

2-5     (403.482     ..       ) 

Other  States.. 

•2       (4.719       .. 

1     Missouri 

0-6     (101.189     „       ) 

Florida  . .      . . 

0-5       (85,081     „       ) 

Virginia 

0-2        (29.891     „       ) 

All  other  State 
) 

s  0-2       (24,417     „       ) 

100  (2.469.093       „ 

100(16.250,276   ,.       ) 

Great  although  the  production  of  raw  cotton  in  the  United  States 
undoubtedly  is,  it  has  within  recent  years  only  met  with  difficulty 
the  rapidly  increasing  demands  made  upon  it  by  different  parts 
of  the  world,  and  it  seems  unlikely  that  the  future  will  see  any 
great  expansion  of  the  cotton  belt  beyond  its  present  limits.  To 
the  north  of  the  thirty-seventh  parallel  the  temperature  is  too 
uncertain,  and  to  the  west  of  the  hundredth  meridian  the  rainfall 
is  too  low,  to  afford  much  prospect  of  indefinite  extension.  On 
the  other  hand,  only  a  small  proportion  of  the  land  within  the  cotton 
growing  area  at  present  bears  that  crop,  and  it  is  believed  that 
part  of  the  remainder  might  be  rendered  productive  by  removing 
timber,  by  draining  swamps,  and  by  reclaiming  impoverished  land. 
But  the  most  fertile  areas  have  already  been  occupied,  and  it  is 
probable  that,  only  in  exceptional  cases,  will  the  new  lands,  added 
at  considerable  cost,  fail  to  prove  less  remunerative.  Influenced  by 
considerations  such  as  these,  various  members  of  the  Agricultural 
Service  of  the  United  States  have  expressed  the  opinion  that  it  is 
in  the  adoption  of  more  intensive  methods  of  cultivation  that  the 
best  hopes  of  an  increased  output  actually  He.  It  is  said  that 
one  seldom  comes  across  a  really  first-class  field  of  cotton  in  the 
States  ;  and  this  indeed  might  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  the 
average  yield  there  is  only  about  190  lbs.  per  acre,  while  **  on  large 
tracts,  carefully  prepared,  as  much  as  500  to  800  lbs.  per  acre  are  fre- 
quently obtained."  Various  causes  contribute  to  this  discrepancy 
between  the  actual  yield  of  the  land  and  its  potential  capacity. 


418  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

The  planter  too  frequently  takes  his  seed  from  public  gins,  regard- 
less of  whether  it  is  suited  to  his  soil  and  climatic  conditions,  or 
whether  it  has  been  bred  up  to  a  high  degree  of  productiveness. 
Outside  of  the  Agricultural  Department,  seed  selection  and  seed 
breeding  are  seldom  practised,  the  application  of  manure  is  imper- 
fectly understood,  and  the  due  rotation  of  crops  is  often  neglected. 
The  small  farmer,  who  has  in  many  cases  succeeded  the  slave-owning 
cultivator,  works  by  primitive  methods,  and  uses  antiquated 
machinery ;  and  when  he  is  a  negro  working  without  direction,  as 
is  frequently  the  case,  the  yield  per  acre  is  below  the  average. 
But,  although  it  would  appear  to  be  possible  by  more  intelligent 
cultivation  to  increase  the  productivity  of  the  land,  two  further 
facts  have  to  be  borne  in  mind.  The  first  is  that  as  farming  in  the 
south  becomes  more  intelligent  it  will  become  more  diversified. 
It  is  significant  that  in  those  parts,  which  are  at  present  most  back- 
ward, cotton  alone  is  produced.  Its  cultivation  only  takes  up  part 
of  the  farmer's  time,  and  wherever  there  is  a  progressive  population 
other  crops  are  also  grown.  The  second  fact  is  that  the  domestic 
consumption  of  cotton  is  steadily  increasing.  During  the  five 
years  1883-7,  31  per  cent,  of  the  production  was  retained  for  home 
manufacture,  but  during  the  five  years  1906-10,  36  per  cent,  of  the 
crop  was  used  in  the  country  itself.  For  these  reasons  it  would 
seem  that  the  American  export  is  unlikely  to  increase  very  rapidly. 
The  production  of  rice  in  the  United  States  has  undergone 
great  changes  within  the  last  half-century.  Fifty  years  ago,  the 
three  South  Atlantic  States  of  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and 
Georgia  produced  90  per  cent,  of  the  total  output,  chiefly  on  the 
delta  lands  along  the  coast.  To-day  the  same  proportion,  but  of 
an  output  nearly  four  times  as  great,  is  grown  in  Louisiana  and 
Texas,  chiefly  on  the  wide  level  prairies  in  the  south-west  of  the 
former  and  the  south-east  of  the  latter  state.  There,  the  temperature 
is  sufficiently  high,  and  water  for  purposes  of  irrigation  can  be  ob- 
tained, partly  from  rivers,  and  partly  by  artesian  wells  from  a  stratum 
of  gravel  between  125  and  200  feet  below  the  surface.  The  drift 
soils  on  which  the  rice  is  planted  are  underlain,  moreover,  by  an 
impervious  clay  which  retains  moisture  as  long  as  it  is  wanted,  but 
facilitates  drainage  and  allows  of  the  use  of  heavy  harvesting 
machinery  instead  of  the  sickle,  which  can  alone  be  used  where  the 
soil  is  not  dry  and  firm  at  the  time  of  harvest.    The  yield  has  also. 


THE   UNITED   STATES  419 

within  the  last  ten  years,  been  greatly  improved  by  the  importation 
of  better  milling  varieties  from  Kiushiu.  It  now  amounts  to 
670,000,000  lbs.,  or  considerably  more  than  thrice  the  amount 
which  has  to  be  imported. 

Sugar-cane  is  raised  largely  in  the  river  bottoms  of  the  alluvial 
plains  of  the  Mississippi,  Louisiana,  the  leading  state,  producing 
300,000  out  of  the  311,000  tons  of  cane  sugar  grown  in  the  United 
States  in  1910.  In  1906  for  the  first  time  the  production  of  beet 
sugar  surpassed  that  of  cane  sugar,  and  the  north  and  west  now 
outstrip  the  south  in  the  manufacture  of  this  commodity. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  this  region  is  of  much  less  importance. 
Within  the  prairie  section  of  it  there  lies  a  part  of  the  south-western 
coalfield  of  Arkansas,  Oklahoma,  and  North  Texas.  It  has  now 
an  output  of  about  8,000,000  tons,  some  of  which  goes  north- 
ward, where  it  comes  into  competition  with  the  product  of  the 
Western  field,  but  the  greater  part  of  which  finds  its  market  in  the 
south.  Petroleum  is  also  obtained  in  the  plains  of  Louisiana  and 
Texas,  and  considerable  quantities  of  it  are  shipped  from  the 
various  Gulf  ports. 

The  Atlantic  and  Gulf  Plains,  and  that  part  of  the  southern  prairie  ^"^ 
associated  with  them,  are  therefore  chiefly  devoted  to  agricultural       j 
pursuits.    Climatic  conditions,  while  not  so  unfavourable  to  the      / 
white  man  as  was  at  one  time  believed,  account  for  the  introduction     / 
into  the  south  of  an  alien  race  unfitted  by  nature  to  develop  the    / 
resources  of  the  country  to  their  fullest  extent.    On  the  open 
prairie  lands  of  Texas,  where  the  negro  has  never  settled  in  large 
numbers,  economic  progress  has  within  recent  years  been  very 
great.    But  the  whole  region  is  likely  to  remain  agricultural  rather 
than  to  become  manufacturing,  and  the  chief  towns  will  always 
be  the  ports  which  serve  not  only  the  region  itself,  but,  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree,  the  whole  of  the  Mississippi  basin.    Of  these.  New 
Orleans,  on  the  delta  of  the  Mississippi,  is  the  most  importanti^ 
Galveston,  Mobile,  and  Savannah  are  mainly  engaged  in  the  export 
of  raw  cotton. 

The  Southern  Appalachian  Region. — One  of  the  most  striking 
features  in  recent  American  history  has  been  the  economic  develop- 
ment of  the  Southern  States — a  development  which,  although  it 
has  affected  all  parts  of  the  south,  has  taken  place  mainly  within 
the  Southern  Appalachian  Region.    The  geographical  factors  upon 


420  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

which  it  is  based  are  the  agricultural  resources  of  the  region,  its 
mineral  wealth,  and  its  relation  to  the  remainder  of  the  cotton  , 
belt.  With  regard  to  the  first  of  these,  the  conditions  vary  greatly. 
The  Piedmont  Plateau  and  the  Great  Valley  contain  much  fertile 
land;  the  Appalachian  Mountains,  though  well-wooded,  are 
naturally  unsuited  for  cultivation  ;  and  the  Cumberland  Plateau, 
likewise  wooded,  is  not  only  dissected  by  rivers  to  such  an  extent 
that  communication  is  rendered  extremely  difficult,  but  the  con- 
figuration of  the  land  and  the  infertility  of  the  soil  are  such  as  to 
render  great  areas  quite  useless  for  the  production  of  large  crops. 
Further  to  the  north-west,  in  the  limestone  lowlands,  which  may 
be  mentioned  here,  are  the  Blue  Grass  Region  of  Kentucky  and 
the  Nashville  Basin  of  Tennessee,  both  of  which  are  exceedingly 
fertile.  On  the  Piedmont  Plateau,  tobacco  is  the  chief  crop  raised 
in  Virginia,  but  further  south,  in  the  Carolinas  and  in  Georgia,  con- 
siderable quantities  of  cotton  are  grown,  though  the  yield  per  acre  is 
not  so  high  as  in  various  parts  of  the  coastal  and  Mississippi  plains. 

The  coalfields  of  the  Southern  Appalachians  are  co-extensive 
with  the  Cumberland  Plateau  and  its  outhers,  and  occupy  portions 
of  eastern  Kentucky,  Tennessee,  Georgia,  and  Alabama.  They 
fall  within  three  districts,  known  respectively  as  JeUico,  Chat- 
tanooga, and  Birmingham.  The  first  of  these  Ues  to  the  north 
of  the  thirty-sixth  parallel,  the  second  begins  about  that  line 
and  extends  into  the  northern  parts  of  Georgia  and  Alabama, 
and  the  third,  also  in  Alabama,  includes  the  most  southerly  part 
of  the  great  Appalachian  coalfield.  Of  these  fields,  the  most  pro- 
ductive is  the  last  mentioned,  as  it  contains  the  well-known  Warrior 
Basin,  which  produces  nearly  12,000,000  tons,  or  about  40  per 
cent,  of  the  output  of  the  whole  region.  The  Middlesboro  Basin, 
in  the  JeUico  district,  comes  second  with  about  4,000,000  tons. 
The  coal  areas  in  the  south  have  been  greatly  handicapped  in  the 
past  by  the  inaccessible  character  of  the  plateau  country.  Within 
recent  years,  however,  railway  communications  have  been  much 
improved,  and  coal  from  the  fields  in  question,  besides  supplying 
the  demands  of  the  immediate  neighbourhood,  now  makes  its  way 
to  the  south-east,  the  south,  and  the  south-west,  coming  into 
competition  along  the  coast  and  the  Mississippi  with  waterborne 
anthracite  from  Pennsylvania. 

The  amount  of  iron  ore  obtained  in  the  Southern  Appalachian 


THE   UNITED   STATES  421 

region  is  small,  when  compared  with  that  which  comes  from  the 
country  round  Lake  Superior,  but  the  proximity  of  coal  renders 
it  of  considerable  economic  importance.  The  largest  deposits  are 
found  in  the  Great  Valley,  in  Alabama,  where  hmestone  can  also 
be  obtained ;  but  the  ore  is  smelted  at  a  number  of  towns  which  have 
grownup  along  the  edge  of  the  escarpment,  from  Virginia  southwards, 
at  points  to  which  ore,  coal,  and  limestone  can  easily  be  brought. 
Among  the  towns  engaged  in  this  industry  Birmingham  comes  first, 
and  the  others  include  Knoxville,  Chattanooga,  and  Roanoke.  The 
production  of  the  whole  region  only  amounts  to  4  per  cent,  of  that 
of  the  United  States. 

The  cotton  industry  has  made  remarkable  progress  in  the  southern 
states  within  recent  years,  as  is  shown  by  the  increase  of  producing 
spindles  from  554,000  in  1880  to  7,500,000,  or  32 1  per  cent,  of  the 
total  number  in  the  United  States,  in  1905.  Over  95  per  cent,  of 
those  in  the  south  are  in  Virginia,  the  Carolinas,  Georgia,  and 
Alabama,  and,  although  it  is  impossible  to  give  exact  figures,  it  is 
safe  to  say  that  the  most  of  them  are  in  the  Southern  Appalachian 
region,  as  all  the  chief  cotton  towns  in  these  states — Charlotte 
(N.  C),  Columbia,  Greenville  and  Spartanburg  (S.  C),  and  Augusta, 
Atlanta,  and  Columbus  (Georgia),  are  either  on  the  Piedmont 
Plateau  or  along  the  Fall  Line.  Here,  raw  cotton  is  at  hand 
(though  it  is  noteworthy  that  the  manufacturing  centres  are  not 
in  the  chief  producing  areas),  the  climate  is  favourable,  the  cost 
of  living  is  lo3K... and JabflurJa. cheap.  Coal  from  the  Birmingham 
(fistrict  is  easily  obtained,  but  it  is  probable  that  the  growth  of  the 
industry  will  depend  largely  on  the  power  derived  from  the  Appala- 
chian streams  on  their  way  across  the  Piedmont  Plateau  and  on 
to  the  Coastal  Plain.  In  1905  only  22  per  cent,  of  the  power  used 
in  cotton  factories  in  this  region  was  water-power,  but  since  then 
there  has  been  a  considerable  extension  of  the  use  of  electricity 
generated  by  the  rivers.  For  example,  the  location  of  several  new 
mills  in  North  Carolina  has  been  determined  by  the  development 
at  Charlotte  of  a  power  company  owning  extensive  hydro-electric 
plant  on  the  Catawba  River. 

The  Ozark  Plateau  occupies  the  south-west  of  Missouri,  the 
north  of  Arkansas,  and  the  east  of  Oklahoma.  A  gentle  uplift 
of  the  region,  followed  by  prolonged  denudation,  led  to  the  removal 

1  10,494,000  or  36  %  in  1910,  as  against  55  %  in  New  England. 


422  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

of  the  more  recent  formations  and  the  exposure  of  the  older 
Palaeozoic  rocks.  In  the  upland  districts  the  soil  is  frequently 
somewhat  poor,  but  in  the  lowlands  agriculture  is  successfully- 
pursued.  The  mineral  wealth  of  the  region  has  given  it  its  chief 
claim  to  economic  importance.  Iron,  which  was  formerly  obtained 
in  the  St.  Frangois  mountains,  appears  to  be  exhausted,  but  lead 
and  zinc  are  both  extensively  worked.  Of  the  former,  the  Ozark 
Plateau  provides  between  40  and  45  per  cent,  of  the  United  States 
supply,  and  of  the  latter,  between  55  and  60  per  cent. 

The  Great  Plateaus. — ^Although  the  Prairies  merge  gradually  into 
the  Great  Plateaus,  yet  between  the  two  there  are  considerable  differ- 
ences in  topography,  climate,  vegetation,  and  economic  develop- 
inent.  The  latter,  which  are  much  more  undulating  in  character, 
at  one  time,  no  doubt,  constituted  a  true  plain,  but  the  rivers  which 
descend  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  have  dissected  the  greater  part 
of  it,  and  converted  it  into  a  series  of  plateaus,  which  differ  greatly 
from  one  another  according  to  the  nature  of  the  land  in  each,  and  the 
way  in  which  each  has  been  affected  by  climate  and  the  processes  of 
erosion.  The  Bad  Lands  of  South  Dakota  and  of  parts  of  Montana 
consist  of  unconsolidated  clays  and  soft  sandstones,  and  have  been 
minutely  dissected  by  wet  weather  streams,  while  in  western 
Nebraska  the  precipitation  is  just  sufficient  to  allow  of  the  growth 
of  a  thick  sod  which  has  prevented  any  erosion  of  the  ancient  plain. 

Over  the  whole  region  the  range  of  temperature  is  very  great 
and  the  rainfall  low.  In  Montana,  notwithstanding  the  modifying 
influence  of  the  Chinook  winds,  the  mean  winter  temperature  is 
always  below,  and  sometimes  considerably  below,  freezing  point, 
while  during  the  bUzzards,  which  here  have  their  full  development, 
the  thermometer  may  fall  to  -60°  F.  The  mean  summer  temperature 
is  between  65°  F.  and  70°  F.,  though  occasionally  the  thermometer 
rises  to  110°  F.  In  the  south  the  mean  winter  temperature  is  generally 
over  40°  F.  and  the  summer  temperature  between  70°  F.  and  80°  F. 
Over  the  whole  region  the  rainfall  is  as  a  rule  between  10  and 
20  inches. 

Grass  is  the  typical  vegetation  of  this  part  of  the  United  States  ; 
where  the  ancient  plain  still  survives,  in  an  irregular  belt  stretch- 
ing from  north  to  south  about  midway  across  the  long  eastward  slope 
from  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  prairies,  it  is  found  growing  in 
close  formation  and  is  specially  suitable  both  for  cattle  and  sheep. 


fbut, 


THE   UNITED   STATES  423 

Over  the  remainder  of  the  region  bunch  grass  prevails,  and,  although 
stock  can  be  raised  upon  it,  a  large  area  per  head  is  necessary. 
Millions  of  cattle  wander  about  at  all  times  of  the  year  upon  the 
open  ranges,  and,  the  snowfall  being  light,  they  are  always  able  to 
obtain  their  food.  Severe  losses  occur  during  the  bhzzards,  and, 
partly  for  this  reason,  Texas,  where  climatic  conditions  are  more 
favourable,  has  become  a  great  ranching  state,  though,  in  the 
north,  winter  shelter  is  now  being  provided.  From  the  whole 
region,  cattle  are  forwarded  to  the  North  Central  States.  Owing 
to  the  low  rainfall,  very  Uttle  arable  farming  is  possible  on  the 
Great  Plateaus  without  the  aid  of  irrigation ;  and,  as  the  rivers 
usually  flow  at  some  depth  below  the  level  of  the  land,  irrigation 
is  costly  except  in  the  valley  bottoms,  where  it  is  chiefly  carried  on 
at  present.  There  is  no  extensive  system  in  operation,  but  river 
and  underground  water  are  both  used  for  the  growth  of  crops  to 
supply  local  needs,  for  fodder,  and  for  stock,  and  it  is  probable  that 
considerable  development  may  take  place  in  the  near  future. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  the  Great  Plateaus  is  not  great.  Lignite 
underlies  considerable  areas  in  North  Dakota,  and  from  the  Black 
Hills  of  South  Dakota  some  gold  and  small  quantities  of  silver  and 
lead  are  obtained.  But  the  region  is  essentially  a  ranching  one. 
The  population  is  small,  and  is  almost  entirely  confined  to  the 
valley  bottoms,  where  Hve  the  ranchmen,  whose  herds  graze  upon 
the  plateaus.  The  few  towns  which  exist  are  situated,  like  Denver, 
at  the  meeting-places  of  lines  of  communication. 

The  Western  Cordillera. — ^The  geographical  conditions  of 
economic  development  in  the  group  of  natural  regions,  which  make 
up  the  Western  Cordillera,  are  on  the  whole  very  different  from 
those  which  affect  the  hfe  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  eastern  half  of 
the  United  States.  The  extremely  broken  character  of  the  land, 
the  dry  climate  of  many  parts  of  it,  and  the  difficulties  of  com- 
munication prevent  alike  the  cultivation  of  a  wide  area  and  the 
growth  of  a  large  population.  In  extent  the  Cordillera  covers 
two-fi^  of  the  United  States,  but  it  has  only  one-twentieth 
of  its  mhabitants,  about  one-twentieth  of  its  output  of  manu- 
factured goods,  and  less  than  one-twentieth  of  the  area  under 
cereals.i     On  the  other  hand,  its  mineral  wealth  is  of  the  utmost 

1  In  1910  the  Western  Cordillera  had  over  7  per  cent,  of  the  population 
of  the  United  States,  over  4  per  cent,  of  the  acreage  under  cereals  and  over 
5  per  cent,  of  the  value  of  the  manufactured  products. 
27— (1326) 


424  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

importance,  the  result  of  the  varied  physical  changes  through 
which  it  has  passed.  The  exposure  of  old  rocks,  due  to  the  erosion 
of  earth  folds,  makes  many  minerals  accessible.  Hence  it  is  that 
the  Western  Cordillera  constitutes  the  great  store-house  for  some 
of  the  most  valuable  mineral  wealth  of  the  United  States.  Its 
importance  is  indicated  by  the  following  figures  : — 

Production  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  lead  for  1909-11 — 


United  States.  1 

Western  Cordillera. 

Gold 

. .       £16,500,000 

£15,000,000 

Silver 

£6,300,000 

£5,600,000 

Copper     . . 

. .       £28,300,000 

£21,900,000 

Lead 

£7,300,000 

1  Excluding  Alaska 

£3,700,000 

The  Rocky  Mountains,  giving  to  that  term  the  wide  extension 
which  is  generally  applied  to  it  in  the  United  States,  occupy  a  con- 
siderable area  in  Montana,  Idaho,  Wyoming,  Colorado,  and  New 
Mexico.  Between  the  various  ranges  of  which  they  are  composed, 
liejnany^  intermontane  valleys  and  parks  that  have  been  covered 
over  by  material  brought  down  from  the  surrounding  uplands. 
In  many  of  these  the  land  is  suitable  for  pastoral  purposes,  and 
with  the  aid  of  irrigation  sufficient  fodder  can  be  grown  to  serve 
for  winter  food.  A  small  quantity  of  cereals  (less  than  1  per  cent, 
of  the  United  States  crop)  and  a  co^hsiderable  quantity  of  beet  for 
sugar,  are  also  grown  on  the  irrigated  lands,  which  are  gradually 
being  extended.  The  tendency  is  therefore  towards  a  somewhat 
larger  and  more  settled  population  than  there  has  been  in  the 
past. 

The  mineral  wealth  is  varied  and  extensive.  Coalfi^elds  are 
found  at  intervals  in  a  belt  of  country  stretching  along  the 
eastern  base  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  in  another,  but  more 
restricted,  belt  along  the  western  base,  while  in  the  intervening  park 
regions  there  are  numerous  isolated  basins.  The  coal,  which  ranges 
in  character  from  lignite  to  anthracite,  is  worked  chiefly  in  Colorado 
and  Wyoming,  but  also  in  Montana  and  New  Mexico.  The  product 
which  exceeds  20,000,000  tons,  is  largely  used  by  the  railways, 
and  in  the  mining  and  smelting  industries. 
-■■  Gold  to  the  annual  value  of  about  £6,000,000  is  obtained  from  this 
region,  Colorado  (with  two-thirds  of  that  amount),  Utah,  and 
Montana   being   the    chief   producing   states.     In    Colorado,    the 


THE   UNITED   STATES  425 

famous  Cripple  Creek  district  in  .the  western  foot-hills  of  Pike's 
Peak,  a  region  of  great  volcanic  activity  in  Tertiary  times,  produces 
one-half  of  the  output  of  the  state.  On  the  western  slopes  of  the 
Wahsatch  Mountains  in  Utah  and  in  Montana,  gold  is  also  found, 
frequently  associated  with  silver,  copper,  and  lead.  Nearly  two- 
thirds  of  the  silver  produced  in  the  United  States  comes  from 
the  Rocky  Mountain  region.  In  Colorado  the  most  important 
district  is  that  round  Leadville  in  the  Mosquito  Range,  at  the 
headwaters  of  the  Arkansas  River  ;  in  Utah  silver  occurs  in  copper 
and  lead  ores  in  the  Wahsatch  Mountains  in  the  vicinity  of  Great 
Salt  and  Utah  lakes  ;  in  the  north  of  Idaho  it  is  chiefly  associated 
with  lead,  and  in  Montana  with  copper*,^  Copper  is  worked  chiefly 
in  Montana  and  Utah.  The  former  supplies  about  one-fourth 
of  the  United  States'  output  of  that  mineral,  the  district  around 
Butte  producing  practically  the  whole  of  that  amoimt.  The  mining 
district  of  Utah  yields  the  greater  part  of  the  remainder  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  output.  Forty  per  cent,  of  the  lead  mined  in  the 
United  States  is  obtained  in  the  north  of  Idaho  and  in  Utah. 

The  Columbia  Plateaus,  built  up  of.  great  sheets  of  lava,  lie 
between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Cascades,  and  cover  the  most 
of  Washington,  the  north  and  east  of  Oregon,  and  the  whole  of 
Idaho  south-west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Their  altitude  varies 
from  500  feet  along  the  valley  of  the  Columbia  River  to  4,000 
feet,  and  over,  in  the  more  distant  parts.  The  climate  is  not  so 
extreme  as  it  is  farther  east  within  the  *^same  parallels  of  latitude, 
the  temperature  being  raised  in  winter  by  warm  winds  from  the 
Pacific,  and  cooled  in  summer  by  the  high  elevation.  Over  the 
greater  part  of  the  region  the  mean  winter  temperature  is  seldom 
below  24°  F.,  and  in  places  it  is  as  high  as  36°  F.,  while  the  summer 
mean  varies  from  60°  F.  to  70°  F.  The  rainfall  generally  occurs 
during  the  cooler  parts  of  the  year,  the  summers  being  almost 
entirely  dry,  and  the  mean  annual  precipitation  is,  as  a  rule,  under 
15  inches,  though  in  a  few  places  it  rises  to  20  inches  or  even 
more.  At  the  same  time  the  capacity  of  the  soil,  Hke  that  of 
the  disintegrated  Deccan  trap,  to  absorb  and  retain  moisture  is 
so  great  that,  although  sage  bush,  mingled  with  bunch  grass  on 
which  cattle  graze,  is  the  prevalent  type  of  vegetation,  large  crops 
of  wheat  are  grown  over  considerable  areas  on  the  same  land  every 
other  year  without  the  aid  of  irrigation.     The  most  important  of 


426  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

these  wheat-growing  districts  are  in  the  south-western  part  of 
Washington,  where  the  Palouse  valley  with  the  surrounding  country 
has  long  been  noted  for  its  productivity,  in  the  northern  parts 
of  Oregon,  where  the  most  fertile  districts  lie  just  south  of  the 
Columbia  River,  and  in  the  adjoining  parts  of  Idaho.  The  Columbia 
Plateaus  produce  about  8  per  cent,  of  the  wheat  crop  of  the  United 
States.  —     - 

The  Basin  Ranges. — ^Although  this  region  is  divided  by  the 
Colorado  River  into  two  parts,  in  one  of  which  the  basins  are 
closed,  and  in  the  other  open,  the  physical  characteristics  of  the 
whole  area  are  in  other  respects  so  much  the  sam.e  that  it  may  be 
considered  as  one.  The  topography  of  the  country  is  broken  by 
many  short  and  narrow  block  ranges,  and  the  arable  land  is  con- 
fined to  the  valleys  and  to  the  plains  built  up  by  the  debris  washed 
down  from  the  mountains.  Climatic  conditions  are  on  the  whole 
unfavourable  to  agriculture.  Except  in  parts  of  Utah  and  Arizona, 
the  rainfall  is  less  than  15  inches  per  year,  and  over  the  greater 
part  of  Nevada  it  is  less  than  10  inches.  Cultivation  is  therefore 
at  present  confined  to  the  river  valleys  where  irrigation  is  possible, 
and  only  an  insignificant  portion  of  the  whole  region  is  under 
crops.  In  the  northern  and  central  parts  of  Utah,  where  the  rainfall 
is  slightly  over  15  inches,  and  where  Mormon  industry  has 
developed  an  extensive  irrigation  system,  cereals  and  alfalfa  are 
grown,  but  beet  is  the  only  plant  in  the  production  of  which  the 
state  takes  a  prominent  part.  About  10  per  cent,  of  the  United 
States  crop  is  grown  there,  and  the  yield  per  acre  is  considerably 
higher  than  the  average  for  the  whole  country  (14*54  tons  as  against 
9*71  in  1910).  The  success  of  beet-growing  in  Utah  is  mainly 
attributable  to  the  fact  that  its  cultivation  requires  a  considerable 
amount  of  labour,  and  the  Mormons,  who  for  reHgious  reasons  desire 
to  live  in  communities,  are  able  to  find  employment  without  leaving 
the  vicinity  of  their  towns.  Within  recent  years,  also,  attempts 
have  been  made  to  cultivate  many  of  the  plains,  which  lie  beyond 
the  reach  of  irrigation,  by  means  of  dry  farming.  The  rainfall 
occurs  chiefly  during  the  autumn,  winter,  and  spring  months,  and 
a  precipitation  of  15  inches,  or  even  less,  is  sufficient  to  grow 
good  crops  of  wheat  and  alfalfa  by  this  method.  The  agricultural 
potentialities  of  the  region  are,  however,  not  great. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  the  Basin  Ranges  is  of  considerable  value. 


THE  UNITED   STATES  427 

The  output  of  gold  in  Utah,  Nevada,  and  Arizona  amounts 
to  about  ;£5,000,000,  and  practically  the  whole  of  that 
is  mined  in  the  region  under  consideration,  the  chief  producing 
area  being  the  Goldfield  district  on  the  southern  rim  of  one  of  the 
typical  basin  ranges  in  Esmeralda  county,  Nevada.  Over  one- 
third  of  the  silver  obtained  in  the  United  States  comes  from  the 
Basin  ranges,  mainly  from  the  Tintic  and  West  Mountain  ranges 
of  Utah,  and  the  Tonopah  district  of  Nevada.  Arizona  is  the  chief 
copper-producing  state  of  the  Union,  and,  along  with  that  part  of 
Utah  which  falls  within  the  Basin  Ranges,  yields  over  one-third 
of  the  product  of  the  whole  country.  A  considerable  amount  of 
^lead  is  also  obtained  in  the  latter  state. 

There  are,  therefore,  within  this  region  several  distinct  types  of 
economic  activity.  Arable  farming  is  carried  on  chiefly  by  members 
of  the  Mormon  community,  ranching  partly  by  Mormons  and 
partly  by  "  Gentiles,"  and  mining  almost  entirely  by  "  Gentiles." 
The  region  is  one  in  which  development  beyond  this  stage  will 
probably  be  very  slow. 

The  Pacific  Slope  consists  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Cascades, 
the  Coast  Ranges,  and  the  intervening  valleys  of  California  and 
Puget  Sound.  These  valleys  have  been  built  up  by  debris  carried 
down  from  the  mountains  by  rivers  in  the  south,  and  by  glaciers 
or  glacial  streams  in  the  north,  and  they  contain  much  iertile  soil. 
Climatic  conditions,  though  determined  to  a  great  extent  by  the 
proximity  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  are  very  diversified  as  a  result  of 
the  irregular  topography  of  the  country.  The  range  between 
summer  and  winter  temperatures  is  generally  less  than  elsewhere 
in  the  United  States,  and,  along  the  coast,  the  mean  for  the  three 
coldest  months  of  the  year  varies  from  about  40°  to  43°  F.  in  Wash- 
ington to  between  50°  and  55°  F.  in  the  more  southerly  parts  of 
California,  while  the  summer  mean  over  the  whole  coastal  area  is 
generally  between  55°  and  65°  F.  In  the  Puget  Sound  and  Cali- 
fornia valleys,  the  winters  are  usually  a  little  colder  than  on  corre- 
sponding parts  of  the  coast,  while  the  summers  are  considerably 
warmer,  the  mean  varying  from  65°  to  80°  F.  The  rainfall  is  heaviest 
along  the  coastal  ranges  and  in  higher  altitudes  on  the  western 
slopes  of  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Cascades,  in  the  former  case 
varying  from  15  inches  or  less  in  the  south  of  California  to  over 
100  inches  in  the  north  of  Washington,  and  in  the  latter  being 


428  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

over  40  inches.  In  the  interior  valleys,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
precipitation  is  generally  much  less ;  in  the  Puget  Sound  region 
it  is  between  30  and  40  inches,  while  in  Cahfornia  it  is  less  than 
20  inches  in  the  Sacramento  valley,  and  less  than  10  inches  in  the 
San  Joaquin  valley.  Over  the  whole  region  the  greater  part  of  the 
rain  falls  during  the  autumn,  winter,  and  spring  months,  and  in 
California  the  summer  months  are  almost  entirely  dry.  The 
heavy  rainfall  on  the  mountains  explains  the  great  Pacific  forest, 
the  timber  from  which  amounts  to  about  one-seventh  the  output 
of  the  United  States.  Washington  is  at  present  the  leading  lumber 
state  in  the  Union. 

Agriculture  is  a  much  more  important  pursuit  than  formerly. 
Wheat  is  grown  chiefly  in  the  Willamette,  Sacramento,  and  San 
Joaquin  valleys,  and,  owing  to  the  greater  part  of  the  precipitation 
occurring  during  the  growing  season,  large  crops  can  be  raised 
even  in  districts  where  the  rainfall  is  light.  Within  recent  years 
the  area  under  wheat  has  greatly  declined,  as  the  result  of  the 
extension  of  various  irrigation  schemes,  which  have  led  to  much 
land  being  devoted  to  fruit-farming.  Barley  is  also  an  important 
product,  especially  of  California,  which  ranks  as  the  second  state 
in  the  cultivation  of  that  cereal.  Among  the  fruits  for  which 
Cahfornia  is  famous  are  peaches,  apricots,  pears,  plums,  and  cherries. 
Flour-milling  i  and  fruit-preserving  are,  therefore,  important 
industries  of^the  Pacific  Slope. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  the  region  is  considerable,  though  mining 
no  longer  comes  first  among  the  economic  activities  of  the  people. 
Coal,  ranging  in  character  from  lignitic  to  bituminous,  is  found  in 
various  places,  but  chiefly  in  Washington,  in  the  vicinity  of  Puget 
Sound  and  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Cascades.  The  total  pro- 
duction of  the  Pacific  Region  is  about  3,300,000  tons,  practically 
the  whole  of  which  is  mined  in  Washington.  But  if  California  is 
poor  in  coal  it  is  rich  in  petroleum,  and  about  one-third  of  the 
United  States  supply  comes  from  that  state,  chiefly  from  its  more 
southerly  parts.  Gold  is  found  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  in  California, 
about  one-fifth  of  the  whole  output  of  the  United  States  being 
obtained  in  that  region.  Considerable  quantities  of  copper  are 
also  mined  there. 

The  Pacific  Slope  is  not,  and  owing  to  its  great  distance  from  the 
more  densely  populated  part  of  the  United  States  is  unlikety  to 


THE   UNITED   STATES  429 

become^a_^ixat^4nanufactiirii]ig  region,  and  such  manufactures  as 
do  exist  are  concerned  with  preparing  the  products  of  the  forest,  the 
mine,  and  the  farm  for  further  treatment  elsewhere.  In  the  north, 
around  Puget  Sound  valley,  conditions  are  somewhat  more  favour- 
able. The  more  northerly  position  of  Seattle,  Tacoma,  and  Portland, 
their  proximity  to  the  coalfields  of  Washington  and  British  Columbia, 
their  greater  facihties  for  trade  with  Alaska  and  the  Far  East,  and 
their  easier  communication  with  the  remainder  of  the  United 
States,  are  all  tending  to  give  them  a  more  rapid  development 
than  is  the  case  with  San  Francisco. 

Alaska  has  an  area  one-fifth  that  of  the  United  States,  and  is 
the  largest  of  its  outl5dng  possessions.  Four  great  physical  regions 
may  be  recognised :  the  Pacific  Mountains,  which  consist  of  a  number 
of  ranges  running,  as  a  general  rule,  more  or  less  parallel  to  the 
coast,  the  Central  Plateau,  a  roUing  upland  deeply  dissected  by 
the  Yukon  and  its  tributaries,  the  Rocky  Mountains,  which 
border  the  Plateau  on  the  east  and  north,  and  the  Arctic  slope, 
which  is  a  continuation  of  the  Mackenzie  Plains.  The  geological 
structure  of  these  different  regions  is  as  yet  imperfectly  known, 
and  the  rocks  of  those  districts  which  have  been  examined  vary  in 
age  from  Archaean  to  Quaternary. 

In  considering  the  climate  of  Alaska  it  has  to  be  noted  that  the 
country  falls  within  the  same  parallels  of  latitude  as  the  greater 
part  of  Scandinavia,  and  like  Scandinavia  lies  on  the  western  side 
of  a  continental  land  mass.  On  the  other  hand,  the  configuration 
of  the  North  Pacific  is  less  favourable  than  that  of  the  North 
Atlantic  for  the  northerly  movement  of  warm  water.  Where 
its  influence  is  experienced  on  the  coastal  regions  as  far  as 
Bering  Strait,  cool  summers  and  mild  winters  prevail,  while  the 
precipitation  is  heavy,  generally  being  over  100  inches.  In  the 
interior,  the  range  of  temperature  is  much  greater,  and  the  com- 
paratively few  observations  which  have  as  yet  been  made  indicate 
that  the  mean  temperature  for  January  is  considerably  below  zero, 
while  that  of  July  is  between  55°  F.  and  60°  F.  The  precipitation 
is  light,  and  probably  does  not  exceed  20  inches.  On  the  upper 
slopes  of  the  mountains,  and  on  the  coast  lands  beyond  Bering 
Strait,  the  climatic  conditions  are  generally  of  an  Arctic  nature. 

The  vegetation  of  the  country  is  also  varied.  As  far  west  as 
152°  W.  the  seaward  slopes  of  the  Pacific  mountains  are  clothed 


430  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

to  a  considerable  height  with  spruce,  hemlock,  and  cedar ;  while 
in  the  river  valleys  of  the  plateau  country  there  are  larger  areas 
covered  with  spruce  and  poplar,  hemlock  and  birch.  The  bulk  of 
the  timber,  however,  seems  more  suitable  for  fuel  and  for  temporary 
use  in  the  mines  than  for  permanent  building  purposes.  Under  the 
climatic  conditions  which  prevail  agriculture  can  never  be  exten- 
sively pursued,  and  is  never  likely  to  do  more  than  supply  in  part 
the  needs  of  a  mining  population.  Grain  only  ripens  under  the 
most  favourable  circumstances,  but  vegetables  and  hay  are  raised 
in  large  quantities,  and  numbers  of  cattle  are  reared. 

The  main  incentive  to  the  economic  development  of  Alaska 
is  the  abundance  of  its  mineral  resources.  Of  these,  the  most 
important  is  gold,  the  output  of  which  now  amounts  in  value  to 
nearly  one-fifth  of  the  total  gold  output  of  the  United  States.  The 
chief  producing  areas  are  Juneau  in  south-east  Alaska,  near  the 
lower  end  of  Lynn  Canal,  where  lode-mining  is  carried  on  in  the 
Treadwell  district,  Seward  Peninsula,  which  is  in  the  main  a  region 
of  placer  mining,  and  Fairbanks,  also  with  placer  deposits,  in  the, 
valley  of  the  Tanana,  a  tributary  of  the  Yukon,  at  present  the  most 
productive  district  in  the  country. 

Although  the  production  of  other  minerals  is  progressing  but 
slowly,  it  is  known  that  there  axe  large  supplies  of  copper  in  the 
coast  region  south  of  the  Pacific  mountains,  notably  in  the  country 
round  the  Copper  River.  Coal,  chiefly  bituminous  and  lignitic, 
is  abundant,  but,  owing  partly  to  its  inferior  quality,  and  partly  to 
the  difficulty  of  transport,  it  has  not  yet  been  worked  to  any  con- 
siderable extent.  The  most  valuable  seams  are  believed  to  be  those 
in  the  vicinity  of  Controller  Bay. 

The  fisheries  of  Alaska  come  next  in  importance  to  its  minerals. 
Salmon  are  most  abundant,  but  halibut,  cod,  and  herring  are  also 
obtained.     Seals  are  caught  off  the  Pribilov  Islands. 

The  chief  means  of  communication  in  the  country  is  the  Yukon 
river,  which  is  on  an  average  open  for  a  period  of  between  four  and 
five  months.  The  railway  from  Skagway  to  White  Horse  offers 
a  good  route  into  Alaska;  and  there  are  several  lines  of  local 
importance  within  the  country  itself. 

Commerce. — ^For  the  five  years  1906-10  the  average  value  of 
the  produce  of  the  United  States  exported  abroad  was  £365,000,000, 
and  of  the  merchandise  imported  into  the  country  £280,000,000. 


THE   UNITED   STATES 


431 


The  following  figures  indicates  the  general  nature  of  both  exports 
and  imports  : — 


Exports. 
Cotton  (raw) 
Wheat  and  wheat  flour    . 
Machinery- 
Iron  and  steel  and  manu 

factures  thereof  (exclud 

ing  machinery) 
Copper 
Lard 
Oil 

Wood 

Bacon  and  ham 
Leather 


Percentage  of 
total  value. 
..   24-9 


6-7 
60 


5-1 
4-9 
3-6 
3-5 
3-5 
2-7 
2-5 


Imports 

Sugar 

Hides 

Chemicals    . 

Coffee 

Silk  (raw) 

Cotton  goods 

Rubber 

Flax,  hemp  and  jute  (manu- 
factured) 

Wool  (raw) 

Flax,  hemp  and  jute  (raw) 

Jewellery  and  precious 
stones 

Silk  goods 


Percentage  of 
total  value. 
..  6-8 
..  61 
..  5-9 
..  5-4 
..  50 
..  4-9 
..     4-6 


4-1 
2-9 
2-8 

2-7 
2-5 


The  following  table  shows  with  what  countries  the  foreign  trade 
of  the  United  States  is  mainly  transacted  : — 


Exports. 
United  Kingdom  . . 
Germany     . . 
British  North  America 
France 
Netherlands 
Mexico 
Italy 
Cuba 


Percentage  of 
total  value. 


31-5 
14-1 
9-7 
6-1 
5-4 
3-2 
3-1 
2-6 


Imports 
United  Kingdom 
Germany     . . 
France 
Cuba 
Brazil 

British  North  America 
British  East  Indies 
Japan 


Percentage  of 
total  value. 
16-7 
111 

8-6 

7-2 

6-8 

5-9 

5-1 

4-8 


Over  three-fourths  of  the  raw  cotton  exported  goes  in  the  first 
instance  to  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  France.  The  United 
Kingdom  is  the  chief  consumer  both  of  wheat  and  of  wheat-flour, 
but  for  the  latter  there  are  also  important  markets  in  the  north 
of  South  America  and  in  the  Far  East.  Canada  is  one  of  the  chief 
purchasers  of  iron  and  steel  goods,  though  these  are  somewhat 
widely  distributed ;  and  along  with  Russia,  France,  and  the  Argentine 
it  buys  large  quantities  of  agricultural  machinery.  Copper  is 
exported  to  the  countries  of  Western  Europe,  oil  to  various  parts  of 
the  world,  lard  to  the  United  Kingdom  and  Germany,  and  bacon 
and  ham  to  the  United  Kingdom.  Timber  goes  to  Great  Britain 
and  Canada,  and  boots  and  shoes  to  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and 
Cuba. 

Of  the  imports,  cane  sugar  comes  from  Cuba  and  the  Philippines, 
hides  from  Germany,  Russia,  and  the  Argentine,  chemicals  from 
the  United  Kingdom  and  Germany,  coffee  from  Brazil,  Venezuela, 


432  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

and  Colombia,  raw  silk  from  China  and  Japan,  cotton  goods  from 
the  United  Kingdom  and  Switzerland  (lace  goods),  linen  fabrics 
from  the  United  Kingdom,  silk  goods  from  France  and  Switzerland, 

Communications. — ^The  railways  of  the  United  States,  which 
have  a  length  of  250,000  miles,  are  so  numerous  and,  especially  in 
the  east,  cover  the  land  with  so  intricate  a  network  of  hues  that  it 
is  impossible  to  do  more  than  to  describe  briefly  a  few  of  the  more 
important. 

As  New  York  is  the  great  port  of  entry  into  the  country,  it  is 
the  point  from  which  diverge  some  of  the  principal  lines  to  the 
interior.  The  chief  obstacle  encountered  by  these  hues  is  the 
Appalachian  system,  which  offers  a  considerable  barrier  to  free 
communication.  The  New  York  Central  railroad  overcomes  the 
difi&culty  by  a  flank  movement.  Striking  north  along  the  Hudson 
as  far  as  Albany,  where  it  is  joined  by  a  line  from  Boston,  and 
then  following  the  Mohawk  westward,  it  reaches  Buffalo,  and 
estabhshes  communication  with  Chicago,  either  by  its  own  lines 
which  skirt  the  southern  shores  of  Lake  Erie,  or  by  those  of  the 
Michigan  Central  which  pass  through  the  Ontario  peninsula  to  the 
north  of  that  lake.  The  Erie  railway,  crossing  the  outer  Appalachian 
ridges  where  they  are  low  behind  New  York,  and  then  following 
first  the  Delaware  and  afterwards  the  Susquehanna  and  its  tribu- 
taries, also  runs  to  Chicago  with  connections  to  Buffalo,  Cleveland. 
Pittsburg,  and  Cincinnati.  The  Pennsylvania  line  goes  south-west 
from  New  York  to  Philadelphia,  passes  through  the  Blue  Ridge 
at  the  gap  formed  by  the  Susquehanna  at  Harrisburg,  and  follows 
that  river  as  far  as  Williamsport,  the  junction  of  lines  from  Lakes 
Erie  and  Ontario.  At  Harrisburg,  a  branch  breaks  off  from  the  main 
line  and  runs  to  Pittsburg  by  the  valleys  of  the  Juniata  and  Cone- 
maugh.  The  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railroad  runs  from  New  York 
to  Washington  along  the  coastal  plain,  passes  through  the  Blue 
Ridge  at  the  gap  formed  by  the  Potomac,  and  ascends  the  valley 
of  that  river  as  far  as  Cumberland,  where  it  divides,  one  line  going 
by  the  Youghiogheny  to  Pittsburg,  and  thence  to  Chicago,  the 
other  striking  westwards  for  Cincinnati  and  St.  Louis. 

From  New  York  to  New  Orleans  and  the  south  there  are  several 
routes.  One,  followed  by  the  Great  Southern  and  its  connections, 
runs  along  the  Piedmont  Plateau  by  Charlotte  and  Albany,  and 
turns  the  southern  end  of  the  Appalachians ;  while  another,  of  which 


THE   UNITED   STATES  433 

the  Alabama,  the  Great  Southern,  and  the  Norfolk  and  Western  are 
the  principal  links,  crosses  the  Blue  Ridge  at  the  water-gap  of  the 
James,  and  runs  to  New  Orleans  by  Knoxville  and  Chattanooga, 
in  the  valley  of  the  Tennessee.  Chicago  and  the  more  important 
towns  on  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  are  brought  into  communication 
with  New  Orleans  by  the  Illinois  Central  Railway,  which  follows 
the  general  direction  of  these  rivers. 

The  Chicago  and  North  Western,  and  the  Chicago,  St.  Paul, 
Minneapolis,  and  Omaha  Railways  connect  Chicago  with  Duluth,  St. 
Paul,  Omaha,  and  Kansas  City,  the  starting-points  of  some  of  the 
more  important  routes  to  the  Pacific  coast.  The  Great  Northern  has 
its  eastern  terminals  at  Duluth  and  St.  Paul,  the  lines  from  which 
meet  at  Grand  Forks.  It  then  runs  westward,  following  for  the 
greater  part  of  the  way  the  course  of  the  Missouri  and  Milk  rivers, 
enters  the  Rocky  Mountains  by  the  valleys  of  tributaries  of  the 
Missouri,  and  descends  the  Kootenay  for  some  distance  on  its  way 
to  Spokane.  From  Spokane  it  strikes  across  to  the  coast  and 
terminates  at  Tacoma.  The  Northern  Pacific  railway  likewise 
starts  from  Duluth  and  St.  Paul,  but  it  follows  the  course  of  the 
Yellowstone  River  by  whose  valley  it  enters  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  after  passing  through  the  Bozeman  Tunnel  arrives  at  Helena. 
It  then  crosses  the  main  watershed  at  MuUan's  Pass,  descends  to 
Spokane  by  Hellgate  River  and  Clark's  Fork,  and  runs  to  Pasco, 
near  the  confluence  of  the  Columbia  and  the  Snake,  where  it  bifur- 
cates, one  line  following  the  Columbia  to  Portland  and  then  turning 
north  to  Tacoma  and  Seattle,  and  the  other  going  direct  to  Tacoma 
by  the  Yakima  valley,  which  opens  a  way  across  the  Cascades. 

The  Union  Pacific  Railway  has  its  eastern  terminals  at  Omaha 
and  Kansas  City.  From  Omaha,  the  main  line  runs  westward  by 
the  Platte  River  and  one  of  its  tributaries  to  Cheyenne,  where  it 
is  joined  by  the  line  from  Kansas  City  to  Denver.  The  railway 
then  enters  the  Rocky  Mountains  by  Evans  Pass,  crosses  over  the 
plateau  country  lying  between  these  mountains  and  the  Wahsatch 
Range,  and  descends  to  Ogden,  on  the  shores  of  Great  Salt  Lake. 
From  Ogden  several  lines,  connected  with  the  Union  Pacific,  run  to 
the  coast.  One  goes  to  Portland  by  the  old  Oregon  trail,  following 
first  the  Snake,  and  later  the  Columbia.  Another  adopts  the  old 
California  trail  to  San  Francisco  by  way  of  the  Humboldt  River 
and  across  the  Sierra  Nevada  by  the  Truckee  Pass,  while  a  third. 


434  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

pursuing  what  is  practically  the  old  Spanish  trail,  crosses  the  Mohave 
Desert  and  the  San  Bernardino  Mountains  to  Los  Angeles. 

The  Denver  and  Rio  Grande  Railway,  which  has  one  of  its 
eastern  terminals  at  Pueblo,  and  is  there  connected  with  the  Atchison, 
Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe  line  from  Chicago  by  Kansas  and  the  Arkansas 
River,  and  with  the  Missouri  Pacific  from  St.  Louis  and  Kansas,  as 
well  as  with  other  lines,  utilises  the  valleys  of  the  Arkansas  and 
the  Grand  to  carry  it  through  the  mountains  on  its  way  to  Salt 
Lake  City,  whence  a  line  runs  to  San  Francisco  first  to  the  south  and 
then  to  the  north  of  that  from  Ogden  by  the  California  trail. 

The  main  line  of  the  Santa  Fe  system  turns  southward  before 
Pueblo  is  reached,  crosses  the  outer  ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  enters  the  valley  of  the  Rio  Grande  which  one  line  follows  to 
El  Paso.  Another,  however,  breaks  off  at  Albuquerque,  crosses 
the  southern  part  of  the  Colorado  Plateau,  the  Mohave  Desert,  and 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  runs  to  San  Francisco.  The  Southern 
Pacific,  the  last  of  the  trans-continental  lines,  starts  from  New 
Orleans  and  enters  the  mountains  near  El  Paso.  It  then  crosses 
the  Arizona  and  Colorado  desert  regions  on  its  way  to  Los  Angeles, 
whence  one  line  follows  the  California  and  Puget  Sound  valleys  to 
Portland,  while  another  runs  along  the  coast  to  San  Francisco. 

Of  the  waterways  of  the  United  States,  the  Panama  Canal, 
although  it  does  not  lie  within  the  country  itself,  is  at  the  present 
time  attracting  most  attention.  By  it  a  shorter  route  will  be 
opened  up  from  the  eastern  ports  of  Canada  and  the  United  States 
to  the  whole  of  the  western  seaboard  of  North  and  South  America, 
to  China  and  Japan,  and  to  Australasia.  The  United  Kingdom 
and  other  maritime  countries  of  Europe  may  also  benefit  as  far  as 
trade  with  the  west  of  America  is  concerned,  but  the  extent  to 
which  existing  routes  will  be  affected  depends  upon  a  variety  of 
circumstances,  not  all  of  which  are  geographical. 

The  freight  carried  along  the  coasts,  or  upon  the  inland  waterways 
of  the  United  States,  is  rapidly  increasing  in  amount,  and  at  the 
same  time  becoming  more  specialised  in  character.  On  the  Atlantic 
seaboard  there  is  a  great  movement  of  coal  from  the  New  Jersey 
terminals  and  other  coal  ports  further  south  to  various  parts  of 
the  Atlantic  coast  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Ice  is  sent  to  the 
southern  cities  by  boat,  while  crude  petroleum  from  Texas,  and 
phosphates  from  Florida  and  South  Carolina,  go  north  to  be  refined. 


THE   UNITED   STATES  435 

On  the  Great  Lakes,  traffic  is  growing  fast  and  the  amount  of  freight 
shipped  from  their  ports  in  1910  was  more  than  three  times  as  great 
as  the  amount  shipped  in  1889,  while  the  net  tonnage  of  vessels 
passing  through  the  **  Soo  "  Canals  is  now  nearly  three  times  that 
of  the  vessels  going  by  Suez.  Iron  ore  moves  eastward  from  Lakes 
Superior  and  Michigan  to  Lake  Erie,  while  coal  is  sent  in  the  opposite 
direction.  Grain  is  shipped  to  ports  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  from 
Duluth,  Superior,  and  Milwaukee,  going  by  way  of  the  Erie  Canal. 
On  the  Mississippi,  the  most  important  article  of  freight  is  coal 
from  the  Pittsburg  region  to  the  cities  lower  down  the  river.  But, 
while  the  movement  of  coal  on  the  Mississippi  has  increased,  that 
of  all  other  articles  has  decreased,  and  this  decrease  is  true,  not  only 
for  the  Mississippi,  but  for  practically  aU  other  rivers  and  canals 
in  the  States.  For  example,  the  Erie  Canal,  which  connects  the 
Great  Lakes  with  the  magnificent  waterway  of  the  Hudson,  carried 
in  1906  only  one-half  of  the  freight  that  it  carried  twenty-five  years 
previously.  This  canal  is,  however,  in  process  of  reconstruction. 
At  the  present  time  it  can  only  accommodate  barges  carrying  not 
more  than  240  tons  of  freight,  but,  when  the  works  now  in  process 
are  completed,  each  lock  will  hold  two  1,000-ton  barges  coupled 
tandem.  Mechanical  power,  moreover,  will  entirely  displace  animal 
traction.  The  route  of  the  new  canal,  which  will  foUow  that  of 
the  existing  one  for  the  greater  part  of  the  way,  is  up  the  Hudson 
from  Albany  to  Waterford,  and  along  the  Mohawk  to  a  point  just 
west  of  Rome,  and  then  by  Wood  Creek,  Oneida  Lake  and  River, 
and  Seneca  River  to  the  vicinity  of  Clyde.  Practically  the  whole 
course  so  far  consists  of  canalised  river  and  lake,  but  beyond  Clyde 
the  existing  canal  will  be  deepened  and  improved  as  far  as  Tona- 
wanda,  whence  the  course  is  up  the  Niagara  River  to  Lake  Erie 
and  Buffalo.  By  this  canal,  on  which  the  state  of  New  York  is 
spending  over  £25,000,000,  it  is  hoped  to  control  railway  rates  by 
restoring  competition  by  water,  and  to  render  the  port  of  New  York 
the  outlet  of  the  immense  traffic  on  the  Lakes  to  a  much  greater 
extent  than  it  is  at  present. 

Another  proposal  under  consideration  is  to  connect  Chicago  with 
the  Gulf  of  Mexica  by  means  of  theXhicago^Prainage  and  Ship 
Canal,  which  runs  from  Lake  Michigan  to  the  Des  Plaines  River, 
the  Des  Plaines  itself,  the  Illinois,  of  which  it  is  a  tributary,  and 
the  Mississippi. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 

MEXICO 

The  greater  part  of  Mexico  lies  between  the  United  States  frontier 
and  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  and  consists  of  a  plateau  rising 
from  an  elevation  of  4,000  feet  in  the  north  to  about  8,000  feet  in 
the  south.  The  plateau  is  bordered  on  the  east  by  the  Sierra 
Madre  Oriental,  between  which  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  there 
stretches  a  coastal  plain  from  10  to  100  miles  in  width,  and  on 
the  west  by  the  Sierra  Madre  Occidental.  Between  this  latter 
range  and  the  Pacific  there  is  another  coastal  plain,  less  fully 
developed  than  that  on  the  east. 

The  geological  structure  of  the  country  is  as  yet  but  imperfectly 
known.  In  the  eastern  mountains,  the  principal  formation  is 
limestone,  while,  in  the  western,  Archaean  rocks,  covered  in  many 
places  by  recent  volcanic  material,  predominate.  On  the  plateau 
itself,  the  limestone  comes  to  the  surface  over  wide  areas,  while 
the  remainder  of  the  region  consists  of  debris,  either  volcanic  in 
origin  or  derived  from  the  weathering  of  the  surrounding  mountains. 
The  coastal  plains  are  also  of  recent  formation.  Metamorphic  and 
volcanic  action,  to  both  of  which  the  country  has  been  subject  in 
an  extraordinary  degree,  account  to  a  great  extent  for  the  richness 
of  its  mineral  wealth. 

As  a  result  of  its  varied  configuration  the  climate  of  Mexico 
presents  some  striking  contrasts.  In  the  low-lying  regions  tropical 
conditions  prevail,  but  on  the  uplands  temperature  is  reduced,  and 
over  the  greater  part  of  the  country  the  climate  ranges  from  sub- 
tropical to  temperate.  Three  climatic  zones  are  generally  recog- 
nised. The  tierra  caliente,  which  includes  all  the  land  from  sea 
level  to  an  altitude  of  about  3,000  feet,  has  a  mean  temperature  of 
about  75°  to  80°  F.,  with  a  small  annual  range.  Between  3,000  feet 
and  5,000  or  6,000  feet  above  sea-level  lies  the  tierra  templada, 
where  the  mean  temperature  is  between  62°  and  70°  F.  The  annual 
range  here  is  also  small  and  the  region  is  said  to  enjoy  a  perpetual 
spring.  Above  6,000  feet  is  the  tierra  fria,  where  the  mean  annual' 
temperature,  except  in  the  mountains,  varies  from  58°  to  62°  F.,  and 
where  the  range  between  day  and  night  is  usually  greater  than 

436 


MEXICO  437 

that  between  summer  and  winter.  The  rainfall,  which  takes  place 
between  June  and  October,  is  very  unevenly  distributed.  On  the 
coastal  plains  and  the  seaward  slopes  of  the  mountains,  south  of  the 
twenty-second  parallel,  it  is  generally  between  40  and  80  inches, 
except  around  the  Gulf  of  Campeche,  where  it  exceeds  the  latter 
amount.  The  remainder  of  the  coastal  region  and  the  southern 
part  of  the  plateau  have,  as  a  rule,  from  20  to  40  inches,  while 
in  the  north  there  is  never  more  than  20  inches,  and  in  some  places 
there  is  less  than  10. 

Climatic  conditions  afford  the  best  basis  for  a  division  of  the 
country  into  natural  regions.  The  tierra  caliente  is  suitable  for 
the  cultivation  of  tropical  plants  of  all  kinds,  although  in  places 
where  the  rainfall  is  deficient  recourse  must  be  had  to  irrigation. 
Sugar-cane  is  extensively  grown,  and  forms  a  valuable  crop,  but 
the  methods  pursued,  both  in  regard  to  cultivation  and  manufacture, 
are  defective.  The  production  is  now  sufficient  to  meet  the  home 
demand,  and  in  some  years  to  allow  of  a  considerable  export.  A 
rubber-producing  plant  (Castilloa  elastica)  is  found  growing  wild 
in  the  forests  and  is  also  cultivated  in  plantations,  the  most  favour- 
able conditions  for  which  are  found  south  of  latitude  20°  N.,  at  an 
elevation  of  not  more  than  1,000  feet,  and  in  districts  where  the 
rainfall  is  at  least  100  inches.  The  success  of  these  plantations 
does  not  yet  appear  to  be  assured.  Recent  chemical  discoveries 
also  seem  to  have  proved  the  feasibility  of  extracting  rubber  from 
the  guayule  shrub,  which  grows  extensively  on  the  northern  plains. 
Among  other  plants  of  the  tierra  caliente  are  vanilla,  which  thrives 
best  in  damp  districts,  tobacco,  for  which  the  sandy  coastal  plains 
with  their  abundance  of  decaying  organic  matter  are  most  suitable, 
cacao,  and  various  kinds  of  fruit.  Mexican  tobacco  is  becoming 
an  important  article  of  export  as  it  is  rapidly  growing  in  favour  in 
the  United  States.  Coffee  is  also  cultivated  in  this  region,  but  it 
finds  its  most  favourable  environment  at  a  greater  elevation. 

On  the  mountain  slopes  the  tierra  templada  rises  to  a  height  of  at 
least  5,000  feet.  In  places  where  the  amount  of  rainfall  is 
deficient,  irrigation  is  necessary  for  the  cultivation  of  maize  and 
coffee,  the  characteristic  crops  of  the  region.  The  former  is  the 
chief  agricultural  product  of  the  country,  and  the  staple  article  of 
diet  of  the  people  in  years  of  drought,  but  it  is  still  found  neces- 
sary to  import  some  from  abroad.     Coffee  grows  in  Mexico  on  the 


438  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

hill  slopes  south  of  the  twenty-second  parallel,  at  an  elevation 
of  from  1,000  to  5,000  feet,  but  the  most  favourable  districts  for  its 
cultivation  are  found  between  2,000  and  4,500  feet,  that  is,  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  tierra  caliente  and  the  lower  part  of  the  tierra 
templada,  and  it  is  there  that  the  best  quality  is  obtained.  The 
state  of  Vera  Cruz,  with  a  rainfall  high  but  not  excessive,  is  specially 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  the  plant.  The  industry  appears  to  be 
in  a  healthy  condition,  more  especially  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
large  towns,  where  cheap  labour  can  easily  be  obtained,  and  new 
land  is  being  brought  under  cultivation. 

The  tierra  fria  includes  the  greater  part  of  the  Mexican  plateau 
as  well  as  the  higher  slopes  of  the  mountain  ranges.  Much  of  the 
land  is  deficient  in  moisture,  but,  with  the  aid  of  irrigation,  both 
cotton  and  wheat  can  be  successfully  cultivated.  The  former  has 
hitherto  been  chiefly  grown  in  the  district  known  as  the  Laguna, 
where  the  waters  of  the  Nazas  can  be  utilised,  but  within  the 
last  few  years  it  has  spread  to  several  other  parts  of  the  plateau, 
and,  if  the  water  difficulty  could  be  solved,  might  become  a  crop 
of  considerable  importance.  Wheat  is  also  cultivated  more  ex- 
tensively than  formerly,  but  the  value  of  the  product  is  still  much 
less  than  that  of  maize. 

Pastoral  farming  is  pursued  both  on  the  central  plateau  and  on 
the  upper  mountain  slopes.  In  the  latter  regions,  owing  to  the 
heavier  rainfall,  the  grass  is  more  suitable  for  cattle  than  for  sheep  ; 
while,  in  the  former,  both  cattle  and  sheep  are  reared,  although  the 
land  is  not  capable  of  fattening  all  the  cattle  bred  upon  it.  When 
the  existing  water-supply  has  been  augmented  from  artesian  wells, 
it  is  probable  that  the  stock-raising  industry  will  be  greatly 
increased. 

Although  the  mineral  wealth  of  Mexico  is  diffused  throughout 
the  whole  country,  the  chief  mining  districts  occur  in  the  region 
under  consideration,  where  they  occupy  a  wide  stretch  of  country 
lying  along  the  western  slope  of  the  eastern  sierra.  The  silver  ore 
deposits  have  hitherto  proved  the  most  valuable,  and  Mexico 
now  produces  about  one-third  of  the  world's  supply  of  silver.  Gold 
was  formerly  obtained  almost  entirely  from  silver  ores,  but  within 
recent  years  gold-bearing  quartz  lodes  have  been  worked,  and  the 
total  production  is  rapidly  increasing.  The  chief  centre  of  activity 
is  in  the  state  of  Mexico.     Iron  is  found  in  various  places,  the  most 


MEXICO  499 

noteworthy  deposits  being  in  the  state  of  Durango,  which  contains 
the  Cerro  de  Mercado — a  hill  said  to  be  capable  of  producing 
300,000,000  tons  of  pure  iron.  Copper  mines  have  also  been 
developed  within  the  last  few  years,  and  Mexico  now  holds  second 
place  among  copper-producing  countries.  The  most  valuable 
coal  deposits  which  have  yet  been  discovered  lie  in  the  state  of 
Coahuila,  in  the  north,  but  others  exist  in  various  places  where  their 
development  is  but  slow.  Petroleum  occurs  in  and  near  the  coastal 
districts,  especially  to  the  west  and  south  of  Tampico,  where  the 
annual  production  is  rapidly  increasing. 

Manufacturing  industry  has  not  as  yet  made  great  progress. 
The  poverty  of  the  bulk  of  the  people  and  their  low  standard  of 
requirements,  the  comparatively  undeveloped  state  of  communica- 
tions, the  want  of  skilled  labour,  and  the  frequently  disturbed 
political  condition  of  the  country,  all  tend  to  account  for  the  back- 
ward state  of  Mexico  in  this  respect.  The  cotton  industry  is  at 
present  the  most  advanced,  and  the  product,  which  is  manufactured 
partly  from  native  and  partly  from  imported  cotton,  consists  chiefly 
of  coarse  unbleached  fabrics,  but  finer  goods  are  also  produced. 
Many  of  the  factories  are  situated  upon  the  southern  part  of  the 
central  plateau,  but  the  most  modern  and  best  organised  are  at 
Orizaba,  a  town  of  Vera  Cruz,  at  a  height  of  about  4,000  feet  above 
sea-level.     Hydraulic  and  electric  power  is  extensively  used. 

Iron  is  smelted  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  but  the  most 
important  iron  and  steel  works  are  at  Monterey,  where  iron  and 
coal  deposits  occur  together.  Among  other  industries,  situated 
mainly  in  the  southern  plateau  region,  are  the  manufacture  of  pulque 
and  mezcal  (the  national  drinks)  from  the  agave,  the  making  of 
hammocks  from  henequen,  and  flour-milling. 

Of  the  peninsular  parts  of  Mexico,  Yucatan  is  low-lying  and  has  a 
heavy  rainfall.  It  is  chiefly  noted  for  the  extensive  growth  of 
Agave  sisalana,  from  which  the  fibre  known  as  henequen  or  sisal 
hemp  is  obtained.  Lower  Cahfomia,  on  the  other  hand,  is  mountain- 
ous, has  little  rainfall,  and  is  chiefly  of  importance  for  its  large 
deposits  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper. 

Railways. — Aloiig  with  the  economic  development  of  Mexico 
there  has  been  a  rapid  extension  of  the  railway  system,  and  the 
RepubHc  has  now  over  15,000  miles  of  railroad.  Among  the  principal 
lines  are  the  Mexican  Central  and  the  National  Railways,  which 

28— (1326) 


440 


ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 


traverse  the  plateau,  from  the  United  States  frontier  at  El  Paso  and 
Laredo  respectively,  to  the  city  of  Mexico.  The  capital  is  connected 
with  the  Gulf  coast  at  Vera  Cruz — the  chief  port  of  the  country — ^by 
two  lines,  the  Mexican  and  the  Interoceanic,  both  of  which  have  had 
to   overcome  great   engineering   difficulties.     One  branch   of   the 
Mexican  Central  runs  to  Tampico,  also  on  the  Gulf,  while  another 
goes  to  Manzanillo  on  the  Pacific.     The  Tehuantepec  Railway, 
which  is  connected  with  the  Mexican  by  the  Vera  Cruz  and  PacifiC| 
is  the  shortest  and  easiest  trans-continental  line  in  North  Americj 
The  distance  from  Coatzacoalcos  on  the  Gulf  to  Salina  Cruz  oi 
the  Pacific  is  less  than  200  miles,  and  the  highest  elevation  reachec 
does  not  exceed  730  feet. 


CHAPTER   XXXIX 

CENTRAL  AMERICA 

Central  America  contains  the  colony  of  British  Honduras,  and 
the  six  repubUcs  of  Guatemala,  Salvador,  Honduras,  Nicaragua, 
Costa  Rica,  and  Panama.  The  greater  part  of  the  region  is  occupied 
by  mountains,  which  have  a  general  trend  from  west  to  east,  and 
rise  in  Guatemala  to  a  height  of  nearly  14,000  feet.  On  the  Pacific 
coast  there  has  been  great  volcanic  activity,  and  volcanic  debris 
has  done  much  to  increase  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  The  cHmate 
varies  greatly  with  position  and  altitude,  but,  as  in  Mexico,  three 
zones  are  generally  recognised,  the  tierra  caliente,  the  tierra  tern- 
plada,  and  the  tierra  fria.  On  the  Atlantic  slope,  exposed  to  the 
trade  winds,  the  rainfall  is  heavier  than  it  is  on  the  Pacific,  where 
it  is  partly  due  to  monsoonal  influences.  Consequently,  in  the 
former  region  much  of  the  land  is  covered  by  wet  evergreen  forest, 
which  passes  into  temperate  forest  at  higher  altitudes,  while  in 
the  latter  monsoon  forest  and  savanna  predominate.  It  foUows 
that  it  is  on  the  Pacific,  rather  than  on  the  Atlantic  slope,  that 
the  majority  of  the  inhabitants  Uve.  They  are  either  pure  Indians, 
or  of  mixed  Indian  and  Spanish  ancestry. 

Guatemala 
Guatemala  has  an  area  of  48,290  square  miles,  and  a  population 
of  about  2,000,000.  Except  along  the  coast,  the  land  has  generally 
an  elevation  of  over  4,000  feet.  Maize,  rice,  and  wheat  are  grown 
to  meet  the  home  demand.  Coffee  accounts  for  over  85  per  cent. 
of  the  total  exports,  Guatemala  providing  over  3  per  cent,  of 
the  world's  supply  of  that  commodity.  Other  exports  include 
hides,  wood,  rubber,  bananas,  and  sugar. 

Salvador 
Salvador  has  an  area  Httle  more  than  one-seventh  that  of 
Guatemala,  but  its  population  is  over  1,000,000.  The  cultivation 
of  coffee  is  the  staple  industry  of  the  people,  but  gold,  silver,  and 
sugar  are  also  exported.  Perhaps  the  most  characteristic  product 
is  balsam,  obtained  from  Myroxylon  Pereirae,  which  seems  to  be 
confined  to  a  narrow  strip  along  the  Pacific  coast. 

441 


442  economic  geography 

Honduras 

Honduras,  with  an  area  of  46,250  square  miles,  has  a  population 
of  over  500,000.  Bananas,  which  are  cultivated  in  the  hot  lands 
along  the  north  coast,  and  gold,  which  is  obtained  mainly  from 
the  Rosario  mine  at  San  Juancito,  together  constitute  over  75 
per  cent,  of  the  exports.     Truxillo  is  the  chief  port. 

British  Honduras 

British  Honduras  has  an  area  of  8,598  square  miles,  and  a  popu" 
lation  of  about  44,000.  The  chief  exports  are  chicle  gum  (obtained 
from  Achras  sapota),  which  within  the  last  few  years  has  rapidly 
advanced  to  the  first  place,  mahogany,  coconuts,  and  bananas. 
Belize,  the  chief  port,  formerly  had  a  considerable  entrepot  trade, 
some  of  which  it  still  retains. 

Nicaragua 

Nicaragua  is  the  largest  of  the  Central  American  states,  and 
has  an  area  of  49,000  square  miles,  but  its  population  numbers  only 
600,000.  Coffee  and  minerals  constitute  about  two-thirds  of  the 
exports,  and  wood,  rubber,  and  bananas  make  up  the  bulk  of  the 
remainder.    The  ports  of  Nicaragua  are  Bluefields  and  Greytown. 

Costa  Rica 

Costa  Rica  has  an  area  of  23,000  square  miles,  and  a  population 
of  380,000.  The  chief  products  grown  for  export  are  bananas 
and  coffee,  the  former  going  to  the  United  States,  and  the  latter 
to  Great  Britain.  A  railway  now  runs  from  Port  Limon  on  the 
Atlantic  to  Punta  Arenas  on  the  Pacific. 

Panama 

Panama  has  an  area  of  32,000  square  miles,  and  a  population 
of  420,000.  Among  its  chief  exports  are  bananas,  rubber,  and  coco- 
nuts. A  trans- continental  Hue  runs  from  Colon  on  the  Atlantic 
to  Panama  on  the  Pacific,  taking  advantage  of  a  break  in  the 
mountain  system  of  Central  America.  The  Panama  Canal,  which 
is  now  nearly  completed,  follows  the  same  route  from  the  one  ocean 
to  the  other. 


CHAPTER   XL 

THE  WEST  INDIES 

The  West  Indies  are  generally  divided  into  the  Greater  and  the 
Lesser  Antilles.  The  different  islands  of  which  these  two  groups 
are  composed  vary  in  size  from  Cuba,  which  has  an  area  of  44,000 
square  miles,  to  small  rocks  which  just  appear  above  the  surface 
of  the  sea.  The  whole  region  Ues  within  the  tropics,  and  the 
temperature  ranges  from  over  70  °  F.  in  winter  to  over  80  °  F.  in 
summer.  The  rainfall,  which  is  well  distributed  throughout  the 
year,  is  heaviest  on  the  slopes  of  the  islands  facing  the  sea. 

Cuba 

The  interior  of  the  island  contains  several  groups  of  mountains, 
and  it  is  on  low  plateaus  and  in  the  river  valleys  that  the  most 
fertile  districts  are  found.  Within  recent  years  a  considerable 
amount  of  American  capital  has  been  invested  in  the  sugar  industry ; 
the  methods  both  of  cultivation  and  manufacture  have  been 
improved ;  and  Cuba  now  produces  nearly  one-fifth  of  the  world's 
supply  of  cane  sugar,  the  bulk  of  that  which  is  exported  going  to 
the  United  States.  Tobacco  is  grown  in  the  Vuelta  Abajo  district, 
in  the  west  of  the  island,  where  the  soil  seems  to  be  peculiarly 
adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  certain  varieties  held  in  high  repute. 
Haematite  and  magnetite  have  hitherto  been  worked  near  Santiago 
in  Oriente,  but  brown  iron  deposits  have  recently  been  exploited 
in  other  districts ;  and  the  total  annual  output  of  iron  ore,  which 
goes  mainly  to  the  United  States,  now  exceeds  1,000,000  tons. 
Sugar  suppHes  two-thirds  of  the  exports  of  the  country,  and  tobacco, 
much  of  which  is  made  into  cigars  at  Havana,  one-fourth.  The 
external  trade  is  mainly  with  the  United  States.  Havana  is  the 
chief  port. 

Jamaica 

Jamaica,  which  has  an  area  of  over  4,000  square  miles,  is  the 
largest  of  the  British  possessions  in  the  West  Indies.  Sugar  was 
formerly  the  principal  product  of  the  island,  but  within  recent  years 
its  place  has  been  taken  by  fruits,  especially  bananas,  which  now 
contribute  between  50  and  60  per  cent,  to  the  total  value  of  the 

443 


444  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

exports.     Sugar  and  rum,  coffee,  and  cacao  make  up  the  bulk  of 
the  remainder. 

HiSPANIOLA 

Hispaniola  is  divided  between  the  two  mulatto  republics  of 
Haiti  and  Santo  Domingo.  Both  are  in  an  undeveloped  condition. 
Cacao,  coffee,  and  logwood  are  among  the  chief  exports. 

Porto  Rico 

Porto  Rico  belongs  to  the  United  States,  and  considerable 
attention  is  being  paid  to  its  development.  Irrigation  has  been 
introduced  where  necessary,  and  the  island  appears  to  be  in  a 
prosperous  condition.  Sugar-cane,  tobacco,  and  coffee  are  all 
exported,  mainly  to  the  United  States. 

Lesser  Antilles 

The  Lesser  Antilles  are  divided  among  Britsdn,  France,  Holland, 
and  Denmark.  The  British  possessions  include  Barbados,  the 
Windward  Islands,  the  Leeward  Islands,  Trinidad,  and  Tobago. 
From  Barbados  the  principal  exports  are  molasses  and  rum.  In 
the  Leeward  Islands,  Dominica  and  Montserrat  produce  Umes,  and 
Antigua  and  St.  Kitts,  sugar.  St.  Vincent,  in  the  Windward  group, 
exports  the  best  sea-island  cotton  grown  in  the  West  Indies.  Cacao 
is  cultivated  in  St.  Lucia  and  Grenada,  and  sugar  in  St.  Lucia, 
Trinadad,  in  addition  to  the  usual  tropical  products,  exports 
asphalt  obtained  from  a  pitch  lake  found  in  the  island.  Of  the 
French  possessions,  Martinique,  the  most  important,  is  actively 
engaged  in  the  cultivation  of  sugar.  The  Bahamas,  also  a  British 
possession,  export  sponges,  sisal  hemp,  and  lumber. 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


CHAPTER    XLI 

SOUTH  AMERICA 

South  America,  with  an  area  of  over  7,200,000  square  miles,  comes 
fourth  in  size  among  the  continents,  being  somewhat  smaller  than 
North  America.  It  may,  in  a  preliminary  survey,  be  divided  into 
three  great  physical  regions  :  the  Eastern  Highlands  of  Guiana 
and  Brazil,  the  Central  Lowlands,  and  the  Western  Cordillera. 
The  Eastern  Highlands,  which  are  cut  in  two  by  the  valley 
of  the  Amazon,  constitute  the  oldest  part  of  the  continent.  They 
are  the  remains  of  a  great  mountain  system  which  was  worn  down 
and  covered,  over  large  areas,  with  sandstone  of  different  ages. 
These  sandstones  lie  in  horizontal  strata,  and  the  land,  though 
much  faulted,  has  the  general  appearance  of  a  plateau  in  which 
the  rivers  have  cut  deep  valleys.  The  whole  region,  therefore,  is 
divided  up  into  a  number  of  tablelands,  the  steep  escarpments  of 
which,  when  seen  from  below,  present  the  appearance  of  mountain 
ranges ;  but  the  only  highlands  to  which  that  term  can  properly 
be  apphed  lie  in  the  east,  where  the  Serra  do  Mar,  the  Serra  da 
Mantiqueira,  and  the  Serra  do  Espinhago  rise  to  heights  considerably 
above  the  level  of  the  massif,  which  varies  in  elevation  from  1,000 
to  4,000  feet,  the  average  height  being  probably  about  3,000  feet. 
The  Guiana  massif  is  also  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  Essequibo, 
the  eastern  one  being  an  Archaean  peneplain,  while  the  western  one 
is  covered  with  sandstone  in  the  more  elevated  districts. 

The  Central  Lowlands  may  be  divided  into  two  regions,  the  first 
lying  in  the  basins  of  the  great  rivers  and  the  second  being 
the  Pampa-Patagonian  area.  The  land  surface  of  the  former  is 
generally  fiat  and  low,  and  is  largely  composed  of  sediment 
deposited  by  the  rivers  in  the  great  arms  of  the  sea,  which,  at  one 
time  or  another,  covered  much  of  the  area  now  occupied  by  the 
Central  Lowlands.  The  basin  of  the  Orinoco  was  occupied  by  a 
Tertiary  sea  which  was  gradually  filled  up  during  Quaternary  times 
by  the  river  and  its  tributaries ;  and  the  land  formed  in  this  way 
now  constitutes  the  llanos,  or  great  plains,  which  He  to  the  north 
and  west  of  the  Orinoco.  These  llanos,  which  are  cut  up  into  mesas 
or  tablelands,  slope  down  gently  towards  the  river  and  have  nowhere 

447 


448  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

a  height  of  over  800  feet.  The  Carboniferous  sea  covered  the 
whole  of  the  lowlands  from  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon  to  that  of 
La  Plata,  and  during  Tertiary  times  the  valley  of  the  Amazon  was 
also  under  water,  Tertiary  rocks  now  being  found  in  different  parts 
of  it.  Since  then,  the  remainder  of  the  depression  has  been  filled 
up  by  more  recent  deposits,  and  the  slope  of  the  river  is  now  so 
gradual  that,  at  a  distance  of  1,250  miles  from  its  mouth,  its  level  is 
only  260  feet  above  that  of  the  sea.  The  lowland  in  the  basin  of  La 
Plata  was  within  quite  recent  geological  times  occupied  by  the 
Pampean  Sea.  It  extends  southwards  from  the  Madeira-Paraguay 
divide  in  the  Llanos  de  Chiquitos,  and  includes  the  Gran  Chaco,  an 
immense  plain  varying  in  height  from  300  to  1,000  feet.  Further 
south,  the  plains  on  the  right  bank  of  the  River  Salado  and  around 
the  lower  course  of  the  Parana  and  Uruguay  also  fall  within  the 
La  Plata  Lowland. 

The  Pampa,  which  reaches  to  the  Colorado,  forms  a  plain  sloping 
down  gently  towards  the  east,  and  consists  of  rocks  of  Tertiary 
age  covered  with  glacial  d6bris,  clay,  and  loess.  Only  a  small  part 
of  the  drainage  of  this  region  reaches  the  sea,  the  river  basins  being 
generally  closed.  Further  south  lies  the  Patagonian  Plateau, 
which  has  a  height  in  the  west  of  about  2,000  feet,  and  slopes  gently 
in  terraces  towards  the  Atlantic.  Like  the  Pampa,  the  land  is 
built  up  of  Tertiary  deposits  in  which,  however,  there  appear,  here 
and  there,  the  remains  of  an  earher  mountain  system.  Glacial 
debris,  and  in  places  volcanic  ash,  cover  the  surface. 

The  Western  Cordillera  is  the  third  great  physical  region  into 
which  the  continent  may  be  divided,  and  south  of  about  the  thirty- 
second  parallel  its  formation  is  comparatively  simple.  Along 
the  coast  runs  a  range  with  a  lower  elevation  than  the  main  Cor- 
dillera further  inland,  while  between  the  two  there  is  a  great  valley. 
The  coastal  range  is  represented  south  of  latitude  42°  by  a  chain 
of  islands,  the  trend  of  which  is  parallel  to  the  mainland,  while 
the  central  valley,  which  has  been  subject  to  great  glaciation, 
is  submerged.  North  of  Aconcagua  the  main  Cordillera  consists 
of  two  ranges,  an  eastern  and  a  western,  between  which  lie  elevated 
plateaus.  These  ranges  run  more  or  less  in  the  same  direction  as  the 
meridian  as  far  north  as  the  nineteenth  parallel,  where  they  turn 
towards  the  north-west,  and  finally  coalesce  in  the  Cerro  de  Pasco. 
The  enclosed  plateau  falls  into  three  divisions :  that  of  the  Argentine, 


Afief  the  Oxford   Wall   Maps, 

RAINFALL  OF   SOUTH  AMERICA 


by  permission 


450  ECONOMIC     GEOGRAPHY 

which  belongs  to  the  Pampa  area  of  inland  drainage,  that  of  Bolivia, 
whose  waters  make  their  way  to  Lake  Titicaca,  and  that  of  Peru, 
which  is  in  the  basin  of  the  Amazon.  The  desert  of  Atacama, 
between  the  western  and  the  coastal  ranges,  continues  to  the  north 
the  central  valley  of  Chile.  Beyond  the  Cerro  de  Pasco  these 
ranges  run  in  a  north-westerly  direction  almost  to  the  Gulf  of 
Guayaquil,  where  the  western  one  disappears.  The  Northern 
Andes  begin  at  Loja,  south-east  of  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil,  and 
between  Loja  and  the  Knot  of  Pasto  two  ranges  enclose  the  elevated 
plateau  of  Ecuador,  which  is  much  broken  up  by  transverse  ridges. 
From  the  Knot  of  Pasto  three  ranges  diverge  and  traverse  Colombia, 
the  most  easterly  entering  Venezuela  and  finally  running  eastward 
along  the  coast  of  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

The  geological  structure  of  the  whole  Cordilleran  system  varies 
greatly  and  is  still  very  imperfectly  known.  South  of  the  fortieth 
parallel  granitic  rocks  prevail,  and  the  coast  ranges  are  beheved  to 
be  Archaean  ;  north  of  the  latitude  mentioned,  the  western  range 
of  the  Cordillera  consists  chiefly  of  rocks  of  Jurassic  and  Cretaceous 
age  on  an  Archaean  base,  with  eruptive  materials  interbedded,  while 
the  eastern  range  is  built  up  of  Archaean  and  Palaeozoic  rocks 
with  Cretaceous  deposits  in  places.  Volcanic  rocks  lie  between  the 
eastern  and  western  ranges.  The  Northern  Andes  consist  chiefly 
of  Archaean  and  Cretaceous  rocks. 

Climate  of  South  America. — For  various  reasons  the  climate 
of  South  America  differs  greatly  from  that  of  North  America. 
Both  continents  taper  to  the  south,  with  the  result  that  of  the  latter 
only  a  small  part  lies  within  the  tropics,  while  of  the  former  less 
than  one-fifth  falls  beyond  them.  North  America,  moreover, 
extends  well  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  while  the  extreme  point  of 
South  America  is  distant  by  almost  eight  hundred  miles  from 
the  Antarctic  Circle.  The  result  is  that,  whereas  in  the  northern 
continent  only  a  small  area  has  a  mean  temperature  above  60°  F. 
during  the  coldest  months  of  the  year,  the  mean  temperature  of  more 
than  two-thirds  of  the  southern  continent  does  not  fall  below  that 
point  during  the  corresponding  season.  The  range  of  temperature 
is,  therefore,  much  less  in  South  America  than  in  North  America,  and 
the  typical  continental  climate  is  developed  to  a  much  less  extent. 

During  the  southern  summer  the  region  of  highest  temperature 
lies  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  continent,  south  of  the  equator, 


SOUTH   AMERICA  451 

and  the  isotherms  over  a  greater  part  of  north-eastern   South 
America  are  therefore  convex  to  the  south.     Over  the  remainder 
of  the  continent,  they  run  from  north-west  to  south-east  as  the 
result  of  the  cold  current  along  the  Pacific  coast,  winds  from  which 
tend  to  lower  the  temperature  of  the  adjacent  lands.    During  the 
northern  summer,  when  the  region  of  greatest  heat  lies  north  of  the 
equator  and  east  of  the  Andes,  the  isotherms  run  from  north-west  to 
south-east  in  that  part  of  the  continent,  but  south  of  the  equator 
they  run  from  east  to  west,  except  on  the  Pacific  coast,  where  for  the 
same  reasons  as  before  they  turn  towards  the  north.     Over  the 
greater  part  of  South  America  the  heaviest  rainfall  takes  place  during 
the  warmest  months  of  the  year.     An  area  of  low  pressure  is  de- 
veloped to  the  south  of  the  equator  during  the  southern  summer  ; 
the  trade  winds  of  the  northern  hemisphere  are  sucked  into  the 
basin  of  the  Amazon,  and  these  winds,  blowing  from  the  north-east, 
north,  and  further  south  from  the  north-west,  bring  much  rain  to 
the  lowland  regions  over  which  they  blow.     At  the  same  time,  the 
south-east    trade   winds   are    drawn   into   the   Paraguay-Parana 
basin,  so  that  the  whole  of  the  lowland  area  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Amazon  to  that  of  La  Plata,  and  westward  towards  the  Andes, 
has  a  heavy  precipitation.     Along  the  north-east  of  the  Brazilian 
highland  the  rainfall  is  less,  as  the  south-east  trade  winds  are  blowing 
parallel  to  the  coast ;  while  along  the  south-east  coast  of  the  upland 
the  rainfall  is  heavier,  but  does  not  extend  far  inland.    The  west 
coast  of  the  continent  is  without  rainfall  from  the  equator  as  far 
south  as  Valdivia,  beyond  which  point  much  moisture  is  brought 
to  the  coast  by.  the  westerly  winds.     That  part  of  South  America 
which  lies  north  of  the  equator  receives  its  heaviest  rainfall  during 
the  northern  summer,  the  winter  precipitation  of  that  region  being 
reduced  by  the  fact  that  the  trade  winds  from  the  North  Atlantic 
are  pulled  onwards  to  the  area  of  low  pressure  south  of  the  equator. 
There  is  also,  during  this  season,  a  monsoonal  rainfall  on  the  west 
coast  of  the  northern  part  of  the  continent.     South  of  the  equator, 
where  winter  conditions  prevail,  the  amount  of  moisture  deposited 
is  generally  much  less  than  during  the  summer  months.    The  south- 
eastern trade  winds  are  pulled  northwards,  and,  except  along  the 
coast,  more  especially  between  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Buenos  Aires, 
the  rainfall  is  low.     On  the  west  coast,  the  strip  which  now  receives 
rain  extends  almost  as  far  north  as  La  Serena. 


452  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

To  sum  up,  the  greater  part  of  the  Amazon  lowlands  has  a  mean 
annual  rainfall  of  over  80  inches,  and  this  amount  is  also 
received  along  part  of  the  north-east  coast  north  of  the  mouth  of 
the  Amazon.  The  remainder  of  the  region  which,  roughly  speaking, 
lies  east  of  a  line  drawn  from  Quito  to  Buenos  Aires,  has  between 
40  and  80  inches,  with  the  exception  of  the  central  part  of  that 
district  which  is  east  of  the  longitude  of  Para,  where  it  is  much 
less.  To  the  south-west  of  the  line  already  indicated,  precipitation 
rapidly  decreases  and  a  dry  belt  stretches  across  the  continent 
from  Peru  to  south-east  Patagonia.  South  of  Concepcion  the 
rainfall  along  the  west  is  heavy,  rising  in  places  to  over  80  inches. 

Vegetation. — ^The  forest  vegetation  of  a  great  part  of  South 
America  is  extremely  rich  and  varied,  and  this  is  accounted  for  by 
the  high  temperature  of  the  intertropical  region,  the  abundance 
of  moisture  resulting  from  large  areas  having  either  no  dry  season 
or  but  a  short  one,  and  the  fact  that  many  of  the  rivers  overflow 
their  banks  during  a  considerable  part  of  the  year. 

The  most  luxuriant  tropical  rain  and  monsoon  forest  covers 
a  great  part  of  the  Andes  in  Colombia  and  Venezuela,  and  stretches 
along  the  north-east  coast  of  the  continent  to  beyond  the  mouth 
of  the  Amazon  ;  it  extends  up  that  river  and  its  tributaries,  and 
southward  along  the  eastern  slope  of  the  Cordillera  for  a  considerable 
distance.  Throughout  the  whole  of  this  region  the  general 
characteristics  of  the  forest  are  the  same.  There  is  a  great  variety 
and  constant  intermixture  of  species,  and  among  the  more  important 
products  are  rubber,  dyewoods,  cabinet  woods,  medicinal  plants, 
and  fruit  trees,  which  are  bound  together  by  lianes  and  covered 
with  epiph5rtes.  Hence  the  forest  is  gloomy,  and  in  the  continual 
struggle  for  light  the  trees  grow  to  a  great  height.  This  type  of 
vegetation  reappears  along  the  south-east  coast  of  Brazil  between 
the  fifteenth  and  thirtieth  parallels,  where,  as  akeady  mentioned, 
there  is  considerable  rainfall. 

The  greater  part  of  the  Guiana  Highland,  and  of  the  Uanos  which 
lie  to  the  west  and  north  of  the  Orinoco,  is  typical  savanna — ^grass- 
land scantily  dotted  with  trees.  The  Brazilian  upland  also,  with  the 
exception  of  the  valleys  of  the  larger  rivers  and  the  coast  regions,  is  to 
a  large  extent  covered  with  savanna.  The  dry  season  lasts  for  over 
three  months,  and  it  is  only  in  districts  where  a  supply  of  water  can 
be  obtained  during  that  period  that  trees  are  found.    Elsewhere 


SOUTH   AMERICA  453 

grass,  shrubs,  and  arboreal  cacti  cover  the  ground,  and  this  inter- 
mixture of  woodland  and  grassland  is  characteristic  of  the  Matto 
Grosso.  In  the  north  of  eastern  Brazil,  where  the  rainfall  is  low, 
occur  the  caatingas,  which  are  light  forests  consisting  of  thorny 
shrubs,  while  in  the  south  the  campos  are  covered  with  long  grass 
intermingled  with  araucaria  thickets.  The  Gran  Chaco,  a  region  of 
summer  rainfall,  is  characterised  by  thorny  scrub,  palm  groves,  and 
in  places  even  by  dense  arboreal  vegetation. 

Further  south,  in  the  Argentine,  especially  around  La  Plata 
estuary,  come  the  great  undulating  grassy  plains  called  the  pampas. 
Here  the  rainfall  is  well  distributed  throughout  the  year,  the  vege- 
tative season  warm,  and  the  desiccating  winds  unfavourable  to 
tree  growth.  In  the  slight  depressions  or  canados,  where  water 
tends  to  collect,  the  grass  grows  in  close  formation,  but  on  the 
intervening  ridges  an  open  formation  prevails.  West  of  the 
pampas  there  stretches  towards  the  Andes  a  woodland  region,  the 
trees  of  which  are  very  varied,  but,  with  few  exceptions,  are  char- 
acterised by  "  stunted  growth,  scraggy  ramification,  light  crowns, 
and  rich  formation  of  thorns."  In  the  west  and  in  the  south, 
this  thorn  forest  passes  into  poor  steppe. 

Along  the  west  coast  of  the  continent  from  about  the  thirtieth 
parallel  southward,  the  lower  slopes  of  the  mountains  are  covered 
in  the  north,  where  Mediterranean  conditions  prevail,  with  sclero- 
phyllous  woodland,  in  the  centre  with  temperate  rain  forest,  of 
which  laurels  and  beeches  and  a  very  dense  undergrowth  are  the 
characteristic  features,  and  in  the  south  with  summer  forest 
consisting  largely  of  beech. 

The  desert  regions  of  South  America  extend  along  the  western 
coast  from  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil  to  Northern  Chile,  the  vegetation 
ever5rwhere  being  exceedingly  poor.  On  the  Cordilleran  Plateau, 
within  the  tropics,  is  the  puna,  covered  with  a  stiff  xerophilous 
grass,  while  further  south  Alpine  plants  and  shrubs  prevail. 


CHAPTER  XLII 

the  cordilleran  states 

Venezuela 

Venezuela,  with  an  area  of  about  394,000  square  miles,  is  the 
sixth  in  size  among  the  states  of  South  America.  The  country 
falls  naturally  into  four  physical  regions.  The  eastern  range  of 
the  Colombian  Cordillera  enters  Venezuela  as  the  Cordillera  de 
Merida,  and  is  continued  eastward  by  the  Caribbean  coast  ranges. 
To  the  north  lies  a  lowland  region  made  up  of  debris  brought  down 
by  the  rivers  into  the  Lake  of  Maracaibo,  which  is  gradually  being 
filled  up.  Between  the  mountains  and  the  Orinoco  lie  the  great 
plains  known  as  llanos,  also  built  up  by  the  denudation  of  the 
surrounding  mountains,  and  cut  up  by  the  rivers  into  tablelands 
called  mesas.     Lastly,  beyond  the  Orinoco  lies  the  Guiana  Highland. 

The  whole  country  falls  within  the  isothermal  line  of  80°  F.  of 
mean  annual  temperature,  but  actual  temperature  of  course  varies 
with  altitude.  The  rainfall  is  heaviest  on  the  slopes  of  the  Cordillera 
de  Merida  and  on  the  Guiana  Highland,  where  it  is  between  60 
and  80  inches.    Elsewhere  it  is  from  40  to  60  inches. 

The  Tropical  Lowlands. — ^The  coastal  districts  and  the  lower 
slopes  of  the  mountains,  to  a  height  of  about  1,500  feet,  yield  tropical 
products,  and  constitute  the  first  natural  region.  Cacao  is  one  of  the 
principal  crops,  as  it  requires  a  temperature  of  over  80°  F.  for  a 
considerable  part  of  the  year  and  a  moist  humid  climate.  Irrigation 
from  the  mountain  streams  can  also  be  practised  when  necessary. 
Cacao  is  next  to  coffee  the  most  valuable  export  of  Venezuela. 
France  takes  more  than  half  of  the  total  output,  while  the  United 
Kingdom  and  the  United  States  take  a  considerable  part  of  the 
remainder.  Sugar  is  grown  in  the  same  region,  but  more  especially 
to  the  west  of  the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo.  The  exports  of  this  article 
are,  however,  inconsiderable.  Tobacco  is  cultivated  in  various 
places,  and  a  small  amount  is  exported. 

The  Sub-Tropical  Uplands. — Coffee,  which  is  the  chief  export  of 
the  country,  and  on  which  most  of  its  prosperity  depends,  is  grown 
mainly  in  the  sub-tropical  uplands,  which  lie  between  1,500  and  6,000 
feet  above  sea  level,  the  most  suitable  districts  being  between  1,500 

454 


THE   CORDILLERAN   STATES  455 

and  3,000  feet.  Venezuela  now  comes  second  in  the  list  of  coffee- 
producing  states,  and  accounts  for  4  per  cent,  of  the  world's  output. 
The  exports  go  mainly  to  the  United  States,  but  a  considerable 
quantity  is  also  sent  to  European  countries.  Maize,  which  is  grown 
in  many  parts  of  Venezuela,  thrives  best  in  this  region  ;  and  wheat, 
which  is  the  staple  food-stuff  of  the  country,  is  cultivated,  although 
the  production  is  not  sufficient  to  meet  the  demand,  and  importation 
is  necessary. 

In  the  lower  part  of  the  sub-tropical  region  is  settled  the  greater 
part  of  the  population,  which  is  largely  derived  from  an  inter- 
mixture of  Spanish  and  Indian  blood.  On  the  coastal  plains  much 
of  the  work  is  done  by  negroes,  while,  in  the  upper  parts  of  the 
sub-tropical  zone,  Indians  form  the  bulk  of  the  inhabitants. 

The  Llanos,  which  are  great  savanna  regions,  are  devoted  chiefly 
to  stock-raising,  and  it  is  estimated  that  Venezuela  has  over  2,000,000 
cattle.  Oxen  are  exported  mostly  to  Cuba,  and  hides  to  the 
United  States.  There  is  little  doubt  but  that  this  part  of  the  country 
is  capable  of  considerable  development. 

The  Guiana  Highland.— Lastly,  there  is  the  savanna  region  to  the 
south  of  the  Orinoco,  on  the  Guiana  Highland,  from  which  the  chief 
export  at  present  is  rubber.  Balata  is  obtained  from  the  so-called 
Bullet  tree  (Mimusops  balata),  which  grows  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Orinoco  and  its  tributaries,  and  forms  the  bulk  of  its  exports. 

Minerals. — ^The  mineral  wealth  of  the  country  is  but  vaguely 
known.  Gold  occurs  in  many  places  but  seems  only  to  be  worked 
in  the  territory  of  Yuruari,  in  the  Guiana  Highland.  Iron  is  found 
in  the  Cordillera,  but  the  most  important  deposits  are  beheved  to 
be  near  the  confluence  of  the  Imataca  River  and  the  Orinoco,  where 
it  is  said  that  inexhaustible  quantities  of  magnetic  ore  of  high  grade 
occur  within  reach  of  deep  water.  Coal  of  a  Ugnitic  character  is 
reported  from  a  number  of  places  along  the  Caribbean  coast  and 
elsewhere,  but  the  deposits  do  not  seem  to  possess  much  value 
except,  perhaps,  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Gulf  of  Maracaibo, 
where  the  Coro  mines  are  worked,  mainly  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Government. 

Communications. — ^The  communications  of  the  country  are  very 
poor,  partly  as  a  result  of  its  generally  backward  condition,  and 
partly  because  of  the  serious  physical  obstacles  which  exist.  There 
are  not  600  miles  of  railway  in  the  state,  and  their  small  importance 


456  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

may  be  illustrated  by  the  fact  that  in  1910  their  total  earnings  did 
not  exceed  £500,000.  The  chief  hne  is  that  which  runs  from  Caracas 
to  Valencia,  and  connects  these  two  towns  with  their  respective 
ports — ^La  Guaira  and  Puerto  Cabello.  In  the  llanos  and  the  forest 
region,  the  Orinoco  with  its  tributaries  forms  the  only  highway ; 
and  of  this  part  of  the  country  Ciudad  Bolivar,  situated  about 
370  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river,  is  the  principal  port.  For 
the  five  years  1906-10  the  annual  value  of  exports  and  imports 
averaged  £5,500,000. 

Colombia 

Colombia,  with  an  area  of  461,000  square  miles,  comes  fifth  in 
size  among  the  states  of  South  America.  The  country  belongs 
partly  to  the  Cordilleran  upland,  partly  to  the  lowlands  of  the 
Orinoco  and  Amazon.  From  the  Knot  of  Pasto  three  great 
ranges  diverge  and  traverse  Colombia,  while  a  fourth  runs  along 
the  west  coast,  and  is  separated  from  the  Cordillera  proper  by  the 
Rio  San  Juan  and  the  Atrato.  The  western  and  central  ranges  are 
separated  by  the  valley  of  the  Cauca,  and  the  central  and  eastern 
by  that  of  the  Magdalena. 

The  Tropical  Lowlands. — ^Temperature  varies  with  altitude, 
and  suggests  the  best  method  of  marking  the  country  off  into  groups 
of  natural  regions.  Along  the  west  and  north-west  coasts,  in  the 
river  valleys,  and  on  the  eastern  plains,  tropical  conditions  prevail. 
The  precipitation  is  heavy,  especially  on  the  Pacific  coast,  where  a 
monsoon  rainfall  occurs,  and  south  of  the  Guaviare,  where  much 
moistm-e  is  brought  by  the  winds  which  blow  over  the  Amazonian 
lowlands.  Below  an  altitude  of  about  3,000  feet  the  products 
are  of  a  purely  tropical  nature.  Sugar  is  grown  in  the  valleys 
of  the  Cauca  and  Magdalena,  and  along  the  Caribbean  coast. 
At  present  it  only  satisfies  the  home  demand,  but  it  is 
claimed  that  there  are  large  areas  which  might  profitably 
grow  it  for  export.  Cacao  might  likewise  be  cultivated  to 
a  greater  extent  than  at  present,  as  only  a  small  amount  seems 
available  for  shipment  abroad.  The  raising  of  bananas  for  export, 
chiefly  to  the  United  States,  has  made  considerable  progress  in  the 
north  within  recent  years.  Cotton  is  produced  along  the  coast  and 
to  a  certain  extent  in  the  interior,  and  vigorous  measures  have 
recently  been  taken  to  encourage  its  cultivation.  Rubber  is 
found  both  in  the  inter- Andine  valleys  and  in  the  basin  of  the 


THE   CORDILLERAN   STATES  457 

Amazon,  and  here  also  are  great  and  practically  untouched  supplies 
of  valuable  timber.  There  are  rich  cattle-raising  districts  along 
the  Caribbean  coast,  in  the  valleys  of  the  lower  Magdalena  and 
the  Sinu  rivers,  and  in  the  llanos  of  the  Orinoco  basin.  This  last 
region  is,  however,  handicapped  by  want  of  good  communications. 
Rice  and  tobacco  are  also  grown,  the  latter  partly  for  export  to 
Germany. 

The  Sub-Tropical  and  Warm  Temperate  Region  Hes  on  the 
slopes  of  the  mountains  at  an  elevation  of  between  3,000  and  6,500 
feet  above  sea-level,  and  grows  coffee  and  maize.  The  former  is  the 
main  agricultural  export  of  the  country,  and  the  best  quality  gener- 
ally commands  a  ready  market  in  the  United  States,  where  it  is 
preferred  to  that  from  Brazil. 

The  Cool  Temperate  Region  which  extends  to  a  height  of  about 
10,000  feet,  produces  wheat  and  other  cereals  for  home  consumption. 
Higher  up  lie  the  bleak,  uninhabited  regions  called  the  paramas. 

The  Mineral  Resources  of  Colombia  are  known  to  be  extensive, 
and  in  Spanish  times  great  quantities  of  gold  and  silver  were  ob- 
tained from  the  country.  The  present  production  is  small.  Gold 
and  silver  are  generally  found  in  the  central  and  western  ranges  of 
the  Cordillera,  where  volcanic  rocks  have  forced  their  way  through 
the  crystalline  schists  of  which  the  ranges  are  composed ;  the 
eastern  range,  formed  mainly  of  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary  strata, 
is  much  poorer  in  these  minerals.  The  department  of  Antioquia 
in  the  central  Cordillera,  and  the  department  of  Cauca  in  the  western 
— ^more  especially  the  southern  part  known  as  the  Choco — are  the 
chief  districts  producing  gold,  which  is  found  both  in  quartz  lodes 
and  in  alluvial  deposits,  but  is  worked  mainly  in  the  latter. 
The  department  of  Tolima  in  the  upper  Magdalena  is  pre-eminent 
for  silver.  Platinum  is  obtained  from  various  rivers  and  streams 
in  the  southern  part  of  the  western  Cordillera.  Iron  and  coal  are 
found  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  frequently  in  close  proximity 
to  one  another.  The  latter  is  mined  chiefly  at  Bogota,  but  the  former 
has  only  been  worked  to  a  very  slight  extent  as  yet.  There  appear 
to  be  large  supplies  of  petroleum  in  the  north-west. 

Communications. — ^The  means  of  communication  are  exceedingly 

bad.     The  roads  are  seldom  better  than  mule-tracks,  and  yet  much 

of  the  trade  of  the  country  has  to  be  carried  on  over  them.     The 

great  highway  is  the  Magdalena,  which  is  navigable  as  far  as  La 

29— (1326) 


458  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

Dorada,  nearly  600  miles  from  the  coast,  and  again  from  above  the 
rapids  at  Honda  to  Girardot,  100  miles,  and  sometimes  to  Neiva,  200 
miles,  further  up.  The  Cauca  is  navigable  from  Caceres,  about  200 
miles  above  its  confluence  with  the  Magdalena.  As  the  mouth  of 
the  latter  river  is  obstructed  by  a  sandbank,  two  railways  connect  it 
with  the  coast,  one  running  from  Barranquilla  to  Puerto  Colombia, 
the  other  from  Calmar  to  Cartagena.  These,  with  the  line  from 
La  Dorada  below,  to  Beltran  above,  the  Honda  rapids,  and  the 
line  from  Girardot  to  Bogota  are  the  most  important  in  the  country. 

Commerce. — ^The  export  and  import  trade  of  Colombia  is  carried 
on  chiefly  through  its  Caribbean  ports — Barranquilla  and  Cartagena 
— ^which  account  for  over  80  per  cent,  of  the  whole.  Much  of  the 
export  trade  is  with  the  United  States,  while  cotton  goods,  mining 
machinery,  and  rails  are  supplied  by  Great  Britain,  agricultural 
machinery  and  locomotives  by  the  United  States,  and  many 
miscellaneous  articles  by  Germany.  For  the  years  1906-10  th 
average  annual  value  of  the  trade  of  Colombia  was  £5,600,000. 

Although  the  geographical  conditions  of  Colombia  in  some  way 
favour  economic  development,  in  others  they  retard  it.  Th 
obstacles  to  communication  between  different  parts  of  the  countr 
have  not  only  hindered  the  exploitation  of  its  resources,  but  the 
have  led  to  the  growth  of  particularism,  and  so  encouraged  thosi 
revolutionary  movements  which  have  been  the  curse  of  the  nation 
Climatic  conditions  have  tended  to  concentrate  population  in  th 
upper  valleys  of  the  rivers,  away  from  the  coast,  and  out  of  touc! 
with  the  world.  Within  the  last  few  years  the  government  seemi 
to  have  been  more  stable  and  somewhat  more  energetic  than  usual, 
and  attempts  are  being  made  to  open  up  the  country,  but  thi 
scarcity  of  labour  will  prevent  rapid  progress  being  made. 

Ecuador 

Ecuador  has  an  area  of  116,000  square  miles.  Physically  the 
country  may  be  divided  into  three  regions  :  the  west  coast  plains 
and  the  lower  mountain  slopes,  the  main  Cordillera,  and  the  Montafia. 
From  Loja,  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Guayaquil,  to  the  Knot  of  Pasto, 
the  Cordillera  forms  two  distinct  chains  connected  by  mountain 
knots  which  cut  the  high  and  narrow  plateau  between  the  chains 
into  a  number  of  basins.  The  coast  region,  about  eighty  miles  wide, . 
contains  numerous  spurs  from  the  Andes,  and  an  isolated  range 


THE   CORDILLERAN   STATES  459 

running  parallel  to  the  coast  for  about  sixty  miles.  The  Montana, 
as  elsewhere,  consists  of  the  forested  lands  in  the  basin  of  the 
Amazon. 

Ecuador,  lying  across  the  equator,  has  a  warm  tropical  climate 
in  the  lowlands,  modified  by  altitude  at  higher  levels.  Thus, 
while  Guayaquil  has  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  about  82°  F., 
that  of  Quito,  on  the  plateau,  9,000  feet  above  sea-level,  is  only 
55*5°  F.  During  the  early  part  of  the  year,  the  rainfall  is  heavy 
on  the  western  slopes  except  in  the  south ;  while  the  Montana  is 
watered  by  the  winds  which  blow  over  the  basin  of  the  Amazon. 

The  population  is  estimated  at  1,300,000.  Of  these  the  greater 
number  are  Indians,  or  people  of  mixed  Indian  and  Spanish  blood. 
The  inhabitants  of  pure  European  descent  are  not  numerous. 

The  West  Coast  Region  has  products  of  a  tropical  character.  Of 
these  the  most  important  is  cacao  which  is  the  only  crop  of  Ecuador 
that  plays  a  leading  part  in  the  world's  markets.  In  1911,40,000 
tons,  or  17  per  cent,  of  the  world's  production,  were  exported  from 
this  country  to  the  United  States  and  to  European  markets. 
Vegetable  ivory,  derived  from  Phytelephas  macrocarpa,  a  species 
of  palm  also  grown  in  Peru  and  Colombia,  and  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  buttons  and  various  kinds  of  electrical  apparatus,  forms 
an  important  export  of  this  region.  Among  other  crops  coffee  is 
exported,  but  only  to  a  slight  extent,  and  some  tropical  fruits  are 
grown. 

The  Cordillera. — On  the  higher  slopes  of  the  Andes  and  in 
the  inter-montane  regions,  cereals  are  grown  for  home  consumption. 
Cattle  and  sheep  are  raised,  and  hides  are  exported. 

The  Montana  produces  rubber  and  various  kinds  of  hardwood, 
but  the  development  of  this  region  progresses  very  slowly,  owing 
to  the  undeveloped  state  of  communications. 

The  weaving  of  "  Panama  "  hats  is  carried  on  as  a  domestic 
industry  in  all  parts  of  Ecuador,  which  is  now  the  chief  producer 
of  this  class  of  goods.  The  toquiUa  straw,  from  which  the  hats 
are  made,  is  obtained  from  the  shrub  Carludovica  palmata,  which 
grows  wild  in  the  hot  and  humid  regions  of  the  Pacific  coast  and  the 
Amazon  basin. 

Ecuador  seems  to  contain  considerable  mineral  resources,  but 
so  far  mining  operations  have  not  met  with  much  success. 

The  railway  from  Guayaquil,  the  port  of  Ecuador,  to  Quito,  its 


460  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

capital,  recently  completed,  will  probably  bring  about  considerable 
changes  in  the  economy  of  the  country.  It  will  be  possible  to  send 
cereals  from  the  inter-Andine  regions  to  the  coast  lands  and  the 
heavy  imports  of  food-stuffs  from  the  United  States  will  probably 
be  diminished.  At  the  same  time  it  ought  to  be  possible  to  distribute 
textile  goods,  which  come  chiefly  from  Great  Britain,  at  a  much 
lower  rate  than  formerly.  The  annual  value  of  exports  and  imports 
combined  amounts  to  about  £4,000,000. 

Bolivia 

Bolivia,  one  of  the  largest  and  least  developed  of  South  American 
States,  has  an  estimated  area  of  708,000  square  miles,  and  there- 
fore comes  next  in  size  to  Brazil  and  the  Argentine.  Its  south- 
western part  lies  within  the  Cordillera,  where,  between  the  eastern 
and  western  Andine  chains,  lies  the  Bolivian  tableland,  which  has 
an  elevation  of  over  12,000  feet,  and  on  which^are  the  twojarge 
connected  lakes,  Titicaca  and  AuUagas.  Many  of  the  surrounding 
mountains  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow. 

The  Puna. — At  an  elevation  of  9,000  feet  and  over,  climatic  con- 
ditions become  unfavourable  to  much  cultivation,  and  stock-raising 
and  mining  are  the  main  pursuits  of  the  puna  region.  Large  numbers 
of  sheep,  alpacas,  and  llamas  are  raised,  while  the  vicuiia,  in  its  wild 
state,  is  also  common.  More  important,  however,  is  the  mineral 
production  of  the  region.  Tin,  which  is  found  in  large  quantities 
along  the  eastern  belt  of  the  plateau  from  Lake  Titicaca  to  the 
southern  frontier,  is  the  principal  export  of  the  country.  With  the 
development  of  conununications,  more  especially  of  the  Anto- 
fagasta-Oruro  line  and  its  branches,  the  output  has  more  than 
doubled  within  the  last  ten  years,  and  now  amounts  to  over  18  per 
cent,  of  the  world's  production.  Bismuth  is  generally£found 
closely  associated  with  the  deposits  of  tin.  /Silver  is  worked  chiefly 
in  the  department  of  Potosi,  and  copper  is  mined  along  the  eastern 
range  of  the  Andes. 

The  Montana. — ^To  the  east  of  the  Cordillera,  the  land  in  the 
north  of  Bolivia  consists  of  wide  river  valleys  draining  to  the 
Amazon,  and  in  the  south  of  great  rolling  plains  broken  up  by  isola- 
ted remnants  of  the  Brazilian  massif,  and  draining  partly  to  inland 
basins  and  partly  to  the  Paraguay.  The  districts  with  an  elevation 
of  less  than  5,000  feet  are  known  as  the  yungus  (or  hot  valleys)  ,^ 


THE  CORDILLERAN   STATES  461 

and  possess  a  tropical  climate.  In  the  deep  inner  valleys, 
from  which  the  region  gets  its  name,  rubber  is  the  chief  product, 
and  is,  after  tin,  the  most  valuable  of  Bolivian  exports.  The 
hardwoods  of  the  Amazon  forest  extend  into  the  lowlands  of  the 
Montana ;  while  in  its  higher  parts  excellent  coffee  and  cacao,  as  well 
as  rice,  maize,  sugar,  and  tobacco,  can  be  grown,  and  large  numbers 
of  cattle  are  raised.  The  upper  belt  of  the  yungus,  and  the  lower 
])elt  of  the  next  region,  known  as  the  valles  (from  5,000  to  9,000  feet 
above  sea-level),  are  the  most  fertile  in  Bolivia,  and  only  require 
cultivation  to  enable  them  to  carry  a  dense  population.  On  the 
upper  parts  of  the  valles,  cereals  are  grown  for  home  consumption. 

The  economic  development  of  Bolivia  has  been,  and  is  likely 
to  continue  to  be,  slow.  The  total  population  is  less  than  2,300,000, 
of  whom  one-half  are  Indians,  and  over  one-fourth  Mestizos.  In 
a  country  over  three  times  the  size  of  the  German  Em^re  there 
are  only  about  230,000  people  of  unmixed  European  descent.  The 
mining  industry  is  handicapped  by  the  difficulty  of  obtaining 
labour.  Immigration  presents  no  remedy,  as  the  altitude  at  which 
work  is  carried  on  is  frequently  so  great  that  only  the  native  born 
can  undertake  it. 

The  difficulties  of  communication  are  also  very  great,  and  they 
are  increased  by  the  fact  that  Bolivia  has  now  no  port  of  its  own. 
The  railway  which  runs  from  the  Peruvian  port  of  MoUendo  to  Lake 
Titicaca  is  connected  by  ferry  with,  and  will  eventually  be  linked  up 
to,  the  line  from  Huaqui,  on  the  other  side  of  the  lake,  to  La  Paz. 
From  Viacha,  near  La  Paz,  a  line  runs  to  Oruro,  where  it  is  connected 
with  that  from  Antofagasta.  MoUendo  and  Antofagasta  have, 
therefore,  at  present  the  bulk  of  BoHvia's  foreign  trade,  but  a  third 
line,  just  finished,  from  Viacha  to  Arica  will  enable  that  port  to 
participate  in  it.  Among  other  routes,  projected  or  under  construc- 
tion, is  one  from  La  Quiaca  on  the  Argentine  frontier  to  Uyuni  on 
the  Antofagasta-Oruro  fine,  which,  when  completed,  will  make 
Buenos  Aires  one  of  the  ports  of  BoHvia.  A  line  is  also  being 
constructed  by  a  German  company  from  Puerto  Suarez,  on  the 
western  bank  of  the  Paraguay,  to  Santa  Cruz,  and  will  probably 
be  continued  eventually  by  way  of  Sucre  to  the  Oruro  line.  Lastly, 
the  Brazilian  railway  which  is  being  made  from  Puerto  Velho,  at 
the  lower  end  of  the  series  of  falls  on  the  Madeira,  to  Guajara-Mirim, 
on  the  Mamore,  will  also  be  of  advantage  to  BoHvia.     Good  river 


462  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

navigation  exists  both  below  and  above  the  rapids  on  these  rivers, 
which  affect  a  stretch  of  water  229  miles  long  ;  and  the  effect  of  the 
railway  will  be  to  move  the  trade  divide  between  the  ports  of  the 
Amazon  and  those  of  the  Pacific  from  somewhere  in  the  falls  zone, 
where  it  at  present  lies,  well  westward  towards  the  foot  of  the 
Andes.  This  will  certainly  tend  to  develop  the  Montafia  and  plains 
of  BoHvia,  some  parts  of  which  at  present  both  import  and  export 
across  the  trans- Andine  routes.  The  total  trade  averages  £7,800,000 
annually. 

Peru 

Peru,  the  fourth  in  size  among  the  states  of  South  America,  has 
an  area  of  695,700  square  miles.  In  it  three  natural  regions  stand 
out  in  marked  contrast  to  one  another.  The  first  of  these  is  the 
Coastal  Region.  Between  the  sea  and  the  foothills  of  the 
Andes,  there  stretches  for  1,400  miles  a  belt  of  lowland  with  a 
breadth  of  less  than  100  miles.  Here,  little  or  no  rain  falls,  as 
the  winds  over  the  southern  Pacific  either  blow  parallel  to  the 
coast,  or  are  drawn  inland  without  precipitating  moisture  until 
they  reach  the  mountain  slopes.  This  region  is,  therefore,  with- 
out vegetation  except  in  the  vicinity  of  the  rivers  which  rush 
down  from  the  Andes.  The  temperature  is  not  extreme,  the 
mean  for  Lima  being  66°  F.  with  a  maximum  of  78°  F.  in  summer 
and  a  minimum  of  59°  F.  in  winter.  Hence  tropical  and  sub-tropical 
products  can  be  obtained  with  the  aid  of  irrigation,  which  is, 
as  yet,  imperfectly  developed.  Sugar  is  the  principal  crop,  and 
is  grown  chiefly  in  the  north,  where  the  land  is  flatter  than  in 
the  south,  and  the  heat  is  greater.  The  annual  yield  amounts  to 
about  150,000  tons.  Cotton  is  cultivated  on  various  parts  of  the 
coastal  plain,  but  the  greatest  production  takes  place  in  the  north, 
where  climate  and  soil  are  particularly  favourable.  The  output 
within  recent  years  has  steadily  increased,  and  in  1910  amounted 
to  133,000  bales.  Egyptian  cotton  has  been  introduced,  and  is 
proving  very  successful.  Among  other  products  of  this  region 
are  maize,  rice,  vines,  and  tobacco,  which  are  generally  grown  for 
home  consumption. 

Notwithstanding  the  disadvantages  under  which  it  labours,  the 
coastal  region  is  at  the  present  time  the  most  highly  developed  in 
Peru.  This  is  largely  the  result  of  the  proximity  of  the  sea,  which 
provides  the  one  good  highway  that  the  country  possesses.     The 


THE   CORDILLERAN   STATES  463 

governing  classes,  either  of  pure  European — chiefly  Spanish — ^stock, 
or  with  only  a  very  slight  intermixture  of  Indian  blood,  are  almost 
exclusively  settled  here,  although  much  of  the  labour  on  the  sugar 
and  cotton  plantations  is  performed  by'  negroes  and  Chinese. 
Here,  too,  are  the  principal  towns  in  which  is  centred  the  commercial, 
intellectual,  and  social  activity  of  the  country.  There  are  few  manu- 
factures, and  economic  development  has  been  much  retarded  by  bad 
government  in  the  past,  though  present  conditions  seem  somewhat 
more  hopeful.  Of  the  50,000,000  acres,  which  it  has  been 
estimated  may  be  rendered  fertile  by  means  of  irrigation,  only 
1,250,000  are  as  yet  under  cultivation,  but  it  is  probable  that  this 
area  will  be  gradually  extended. 

The  Andine  Zone  forms  the  second  great  natural  region  of 
Peru.  On  the  western  slopes  of  the  Cordillera,  the  rainfall 
becomes  greater  and  the  vegetation  improves  with  increasing 
altitude.  Wheat,  maize,  alfalfa,  oats,  and  barley  are  all  culti- 
vated to  a  height  of  11,500  feet  in  the  more  sheltered  valleys, 
both  on  the  western  slopes  of  the  mountains  and  on  the  table- 
lands between  the  Cordilleran  ranges.  Above  12,000  feet,  the 
quinua  (the  grain  of  which  is  about  the  size  of  mustard  seed)  is 
the  staple  food  of  man,  and  the  land  is  generally  covered  with 
coarse,  high  grass.  Throughout  the  whole  of  this  region  crops  are 
grown  chiefly  to  meet  local  needs,  and  stock-raising  and  mining  are 
the  two  pursuits  of  more  general  importance.  On  the  tablelands, 
frequently  at  an  elevation  of  13,000  feet,  there  are  great  herds  of 
cattle  and  sheep,  llamas,  alpacas,  and  vicunas.  The  llama  is 
prized  both  for  its  wool  and  as  a  means  of  transport ;  the  alpaca 
for  its  wool  alone.  Of  the  Peruvian  exports  of  wool,  that  obtained 
from  the  alpaca  is  by  far  the  most  valuable,  and  Peru  contributes 
three-fourths  of  the  world's  supply  of  this  commodity. 

The  Andine  region  is  still  more  noted  for  its  mineral  wealth, 
which  is  found  chiefly,  but  by  no  means  exclusively,  in  the  eastern 
Cordillera.  Gold  is  obtained  here  both  in  alluvial  deposits  and  in 
quartz-veins,  and  in  the  latter  form  it  also  occurs  in  the  western 
foothills.  Silver  and  copper  are  widespread,  but  are  mainly  worked 
upon  the  high  plateaus  and  in  some  of  the  valleys  of  the  inter- 
Andine  country.  These  two  minerals  at  present  constitute  over 
two-thirds  of  the  value  of  the  product  of  Peruvian  mines.  The 
great  producing  district  is  in  the  Cerro  de  Pasco,  where  a  United 


464  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

States  company  is  operating  at  an  elevation  of  14,400  feet  above 
sea-level.  Quicksilver  is  worked,  as  it  has  been  for  over  three 
centuries,  at  Huancavelica,  in  the  Western  Cordillera.  Lead,  zinc, 
and  iron  are  found  in  various  places.  Coal  is  widely  distributed, 
but  much  of  that  used  in  the  country  is  imported  from  abroad. 
The  undeveloped  state  of  the  mineral  industry  in  Peru  is  evidenced 
by  the  fact  that  in  1910  the  total  output  was  valued  at  little  over 
£3,000,000.  The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  good  communications 
by  which  machinery  and  fuel  may  be  brought  to  the  mines,  the 
want  of  capital,  and  the  hitherto  unsettled  pohtical  conditions 
have  all  contributed  to  this  result.  The  mestizo,  who  is  the  chief 
inhabitant  of  the  Andine  zone,  makes  a  good  miner,  but  it  is  very 
doubtful  whether  sufficient  labour  is  obtainable  to  allow  of  a  rapid 
expansion. 

The  Montana,  the  third  natural  region  of  Peru,  occupies 
about  two-thirds  of  the  whole  country.  It  consists  of  the  lower 
slopes  and  foothills  on  the  east  of  the  Andes,  great  open  valleys 
free  of  timber  and  covered  with  grass,  and  wide  areas  of  virgin 
forest.  The  rainfall  is  much  greater  than  in  either  of  the  two 
preceding  regions  and  the  temperature  is  higher.  The  chief  in- 
habitants are  Indians,  although  there  are  a  number  of  mestizos 
and  a  few  white  men.  Economic  development  is  just  beginning, 
and  rubber  is  the  most  important  product,  though  coffee,  cacao, 
coca,  and  tobacco  can  all  be  grown.  Iquitos,  situated  on  the 
River  Maranon  below  its  confluence  with  the  UcayaU,  is  the  com- 
mercial centre  and  port  of  the  region.  It  is  accessible  to  ocean 
going  steamers,  though  2,500  miles  from  the  ocean. 

Communications. — ^The  lack  of  good  means  of  communication 
is  a  great  hindrance  to  the  economic  development  of  Peru.  In 
the  whole  country  there  are  not  1,660  miles  of  raihoad,  and  most 
of  the  lines  are  short,  running  from  the  coast  inland  to  the  foot 
of  the  Andes.  Only  two  penetrate  the  mountains — the  Central 
which  has  a  maximum  elevation  of  15,645  feet,  and  runs  from 
Callao  on  the  coast  to  Huancayo,  by  way  of  Oroya,  where  it  joins 
a  line  to  Cerro  de  Pasco ;  and  the  Southern  from  Mollendo  to 
Puno,  on  Lake  Titicaca,  with  a  maximum  elevation  of  14,660  feet. 
Near  Puno  a  branch  breaks  off  and  runs  to  Cuzco.  With  these 
exceptions,  the  only  means  of  transport  on  the^^"5iSra  is  by  mules 
or  llamas,  as  good  roads  can  hardly  be  said  to  exist.    In  the  Montafia, 


THE   CORDILLERAN   STATES  465 

the  rivers  provide  from  5,000  to  10,000  miles  of  navigable  waterway, 
according  to  the  season,  but  the  communications  between  these 
and  their  hinterlands  are  exceedingly  bad. 

The  chief  exports,  as  already  indicated,  are  sugar,  rubber,  copper, 
wool,  cotton,  and  silver,  while  the  chief  imports  are  textiles  and 
machinery.  The  average  value  of  the  former  in  the  years  1906-10 
was  estimated  at  ;f4,900,000,  of  which  33  per  cent,  was  from  the 
United  Kingdom,  20  per  cent,  from  the  United  States,  and  15  per 
cent,  from  Germany.  Within  recent  years  British  imports  into 
Peru  have  declined,  while  those  from  the  United  States  and  Germany 
have  shown  a  steady  and  marked  increase.  Of  the  exports,  valued 
at  £6,000,000  in  1906-10,  40  per  cent,  went  to  Great  Britain,  25 
per  cent,  to  the  United  States,  and  12  per  cent,  to  Chile. 

The  chief  ports  are  Callao,  one  of  the  most  important  on  the 
whole  Pacific  coast,  and  the  maritime  centre  of  Peru ;  and  Mollendo, 
through  which  much  of  the  Bolivian  trade  is  carried  on  by  the 
Southern  railway. 

Chile 

The  Republic  of  Chile,  which  extends  from  the  nineteenth 
parallel  of  south  latitude  along  the  west  coast  of  South  America 
to  the  extremity  of  the  continent,  has  a  length  of  2,625  miles, 
a  breadth  varying  from  65  to  185  miles,  and  an  area  of 
292,500  square  miles.  It  therefore  occupies  about  one-twenty-fifth 
of  the  southern  half  of  the  New  World,  and  ranks  seventh  in  size 
among  its  states. 

The  physical  features,  climate,  and,  to  some  extent,  the  vegetation 
of  the  country,  mark  out  distinctly  its  major  natural  regions.  To 
the  north  of  the  twenty-seventh  parallel,  the  western  and  main 
ranges  of  the  Cordillera  are  separated  by  a  great  desert  region  of 
considerable  altitude,  in  many  places  traversed  by  mountain  ridges. 
Here,  there  is  practically  no  rainfall,  the  valleys  are  narrow,  and 
few  rivers  reach  the  sea.  Desert  conditions  prevail,  and,  except 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  streams,  the  land  is  without  vegeta- 
tion. Further  south,  between  the  twenty-seventh  and  thirty-third 
parallels,  the  land  intervening  between  the  two  ranges  of  the 
Cordillera,  which  in  this  region  approach  more  closely  to  one 
another,  is  more  mountainous  in  character ;    the  rainfall  increases 


466  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

beyond  the  thirtieth  parallel,  and  in  the  south  it  exceeds  10  inches  ; 
the  rivers  are  more  numerous  ;  the  valleys  in  which  they  flow  are 
wider ;  and  the  vegetation,  though  scanty  and  generally  confined 
to  the  watercourses,  is  of  a  sclerophyllous  type.  From  the  thirty- 
third  parallel,  the  great  Central  Valley  of  Chile  runs  south  between 
the  coast  range  and  the  main  axis  of  the  Cordillera,  the  valley 
itself  being  submerged  and  the  coast  range  broken  up  into  a 
series  of  islands  beyond  latitude  42°  S.  This  last  region  may  be 
further  subdivided.  As  far  south  as  about  39°  S,  the  Mediterranean 
type  of  climate  and  vegetation  is  found.  Beyond  this,  the  country 
lies  within  the  westerly  wind  belt  all  the  year  round  ;  and  the  heavy 
precipitation,  combined  with  a  fairly  high  temperature,  induces 
the  growth  of  a  temperate  rain  forest,  which  gradually  passes  into 
the  summer  forest  of  Southern  Chile. 

The  Northern  Desert  of  Chile,  which  extends  as  far 
south  as  latitude  30°,  is  the  scene  of  considerable  economic 
activity.  Great  deposits  of  nitrate  of  soda  lie  in  a  narrow  strip 
of  land,  running  from  north  to  south  for  about  500  miles,  at  a 
distance  from  the  coast  varying  from  fifteen  miles  in  the  north 
to  ninety  in  the  south.  The  origin  of  these  deposits  has  not  yet 
been  finally  determined,  but  they  appear  to  be  due  to  the 
chemical  combination  of  nitric  acid,  derived  from  great  quantities 
of  decaying  seaweed  in  a  basin  frequently  refilled  by  the  tide, 
with  the  sodium  salts  which  remained  after  the  evaporation  of  the 
water  from  the  basin.  The  aridity  of  the  climate  has  been  the 
all-important  factor  in  the  preservation  of  the  nitrate,  as  even  a 
moderate  rainfall  would  have  led  to  its  destruction.  The  exports 
of  nitrate  of  soda,  mainly  for  use  as  a  fertiliser,  but  also  for  the  manu- 
facture of  nitric  acid  and  other  substances,  have  increased  very 
largely  within  recent  years,  and  for  a  time  it  seemed  that  the  end 
of  the  Chilean  industry  was  in  sight.  Lately,  however,  large  de- 
posits have  been  found  in  Antofagasta  and  Atacama,  and  it  is 
now  believed  that  the  resources  of  the  country  are  sufficient  to 
meet  the  demands  upon  it  for  a  considerable  time  to  come.  The 
chief  purchasers  of  Chilean  nitrate  are  Germany,  which  uses  it 
largely  in  the  cultivation  of  beet,  Britain,  the  United  States,  and 
France ;  and  it  is  exported  to  these  countries  mainly  through  the 
ports  of  Iquique,  Caleta  Buena,  Tocopilla,  Antofagasta,  and  Taltal. 
Formerly  the  trade  was  almost    entirely  in  British  hands,  but 


THE   CORDILLERAN    STATES  467 

Germany  has  now  acquired  a  considerable  share  in  it.  The  total 
export  of  nitrate  in  1910  amounted  to  over  5,000,000  tons. 

The  metalliferous  deposits  of  the  country  are  chiefly  found  in 
this  arid  northern  region,  and  in  the  less  arid  one  immediately  to 
the  south,  which  lies  between  the  thirtieth  and  thirty-third 
parallels,  and  may  be  called  the  Semi-Desert  Region.  Gold,  silver, 
and  copper  exist,  as  in  several  other  parts  of  the  world,  more 
especially  where  rocks  of  volcanic  or  plutonic  origin  come  into 
contact  with  metamorphosed  sedimentary  strata.  In  the  coast 
range,  gold  and  silver  are  obtained ;  while  further  inland  there 
are  many  silver  veins,  which  it  does  not  pay  to  work,  as  that 
metal  is  not  associated  with  copper.  Still  further  east,  in  the 
main  range  of  the  Andes,  there  are  numerous  veins  of  silver  and 
copper,  which  are  worked  mainly  on  account  of  the  latter  metal. 
Copper  is,  after  nitrate,  the  most  valuable  export  of  Chile.  The 
average  output  (1909-11)  is  about  38,000  tons,  or  a  little  over 
4  per  cent,  of  the  world's  production. 

Agriculture  is  all  but  impossible  in  the  Northern  Desert,  but  in 
the  Semi-desert  Region  it  is  carried  on  to  a  considerable  extent  in 
those  districts  in  which  the  land  can  be  made  productive  by 
irrigation.  The  provinces  of  Coquimbo  and  Aconcagua  are  able 
to  supply  their  own  needs,  and  even  to  export  a  certain  amount 
to  the  north,  where  everything  required  by  the  great  mining 
population  has  to  be  imported.  Until  recently,  even  water  had 
to  be  brought  by  ship,  but  now  most  of  the  mining  towns  are 
supplied  from  the  Andes. 

Central  Chile. — ^The  third  region  of  Chile,  that  part  of  the 
Great  Valley  with  a  Mediterranean  type  of  climate,  is  the  most 
important  from  an  agricultural  point  of  view.  On  the  coastal 
range  and  on  the  slopes  of  the  Andes,  there  is  much  good  grazing 
ground,  while  the  chief  products  of  the  valley  itself  are  vines  and 
wheat,  which  are  generally  grown  under  irrigation,  the  water 
being  supplied  by  streams  from  the  mountains.  It  is  only  in 
the  extreme  south  of  this  part  of  the  country  that  irrigation  is 
unnecessary,  and  there  the  vine  ceases  to  grow.  The  existence 
of  the  large  mining  population  in  Northern  Chile  creates  a  con- 
siderable demand  for  agricultural  produce,  and  the  amount  of 
wheat  exported  abroad  is  less  than  formerly.  The  manufacture 
of  wine  is  also  an  important  national  industry,  and  Chilean  wines 


468  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

are  much  in  demand  both  at  home  and  in  the  neighbouring  States. 
Among  other  products  of  this  region  are  all  varieties  of  warm 
temperate  and  sub-tropical  fruits. 

Industrial  development,  apart  from  mining,  has  been  slow  in 
Chile,  and  manufacturing  pursuits  are  not  engaged  in  to  any 
great  extent.  The  population  of  the  country  is  small,  and  mainly 
occupied  in  mining  and  agriculture ;  and  there  is  a  want  both  of 
the  capital  and  labour  necessary  for  manufactures.  In  and  around 
Valparaiso  and  Santiago,  there  are  numerous  establishments 
engaged  in  weaving,  tanning,  brewing,  sugar  refining,  etc.  Water- 
power  is  abundant,  and  coal  is  obtained  from  the  province  of 
Concepcion — chiefly  from  the  district  around  Coronel.  As  much 
of  this  coal  is  lignitic  and  not  suited  for  all  purposes,  while  British 
and  Australian  coal  is  imported  very  cheaply  by  nitrate  ships,  less 
than  1,000,000  tons  per  year  is  produced. 

This  part  of  Chile  is  the  most  highly  developed  and  the  most 
densely  populated.  Along  the  valley  lie  a  series  of  towns,  of 
which  Santiago  is  the  most  important ;  while  along  the  coast, 
opposite  gaps  in  the  coastal  range,  are  such  ports  as  Valparaiso, 
Constitucion,  Talcahuano,  and  Coronel. 

Southern  Chile. — ^The  last  of  the  natural  regions  of  Chile, 
that  which  lies  within  the  belt  of  westerly  winds,  is,  except  in  the 
north,  unfavourable  to  the  cultivation  of  cereals.  The  heavily 
forested  slopes  facing  the  Pacific  are  believed  to  contain  much 
valuable  timber,  which  has  as  yet  been  little  exploited,  while 
many  of  the  sheltered  valleys  and  inland  districts  are  suitable  for 
grazing  cattle  and  sheep.  The  territory  of  Magallanes  has  nearly 
2,000,000  sheep,  the  wool  and  mutton  of  which  are  exported  from 
Punta  Arenas,  the  most  southerly  town  of  the  world.  Valdivia 
is  the  port  for  the  agricultural  and  pastoral  products  of  the 
northern  part  of  this  region. 

Communications. — In  Chile  there  are  over  4,000  miles  of  rail- 
way, partly  owned  by  the  State,  partly  by  private  companies. 
Of  the  former,  the  most  important  is  that  which  runs  from 
Puerto  Montt,  by  Santiago,  along  the  Great  Valley  to  La  Serena. 
This  railway,  which  has  branches  to  the  various  ports  on  the  coast, 
already  mentioned,  is  being  continued  northward  to  Copiapo. 
It  will  eventually  join  the  northern  part  of  the  "  longitudinal 
railway "   which  runs  from  Pueblo  Hundido  to  Pintados.     The 


THE   CORDILLERAN   STATES  469 

trans- Andine  line  from  Valparaiso  by  Uspallata  has  been  constructed 
partly  by  the  Government,  partly  by  private  companies.  The 
most  important  of  the  wholly  private  lines  is  that  from  Anto- 
fagasta  to  Oruro  in  Bolivia  ;  but  the  chief- railways  connecting  the 
mining  districts  of  Northern  Chile  with  the  coast  are  also  owned 
by  private  companies. 

Commerce. — ^The  principal  exports  of  the  country  have  already 
been  indicated.  In  1906-10  they  were  valued  at  £22,000,000  per 
annum,  nearly  one-half  of  which  went  to  the  United  Kingdom  ; 
Germany,  the  United  States,  and  France  coming  next  in  the  order 
given.  In  the  same  years  the  imports  were  estimated  at  £20,000,000, 
and  consisted  largely  of  textiles,  iron  and  steel  goods,  coal  and 
machinery.  Over  one-third  of  the  imports  were  from  the  United 
Kingdom,  and  Germany  and  the  United  States  between  them  sent 
a  similar  amount.  The  bulk  of  the  imports  come  to  Valparaiso, 
whence  they  are  distributed  throughout  the  country. 


CHAPTER  XLIII 

BRAZIL 

The  United  States  of  Brazil,  which  have  an  area  over  two- 
fifths  that  of  the  whole  continent  of  South  America,  include  the 
greater|part  of  the  Amazonian  lowlands  and  the  Brazilian  massif, 
as  well  as  adjacent  portions  of  the  Guiana  Highland,  the  Andes, 
and  the  plains  of  the  Paraguay-Parana  basin.  The  knowledge  at 
present  existing  regarding  the  geology,  climate,  and  economic 
potentiaHties  of  these  different  areas  is  not  sufficient  to  permit  of 
a  final  division  into  natural  regions,  and  the  one  attempted  here 
must  be  regarded  as  provisional. 

The  Amazonian  Lowlands,  which  comprise  the  states  of 
Amazonas,  Para,  and  part  of  Maranhao,  consist  in  the  main  of 
Tertiary  and  Quaternary  material.  The  rainfall  is  heavy,  and 
the  rivers  overflow  their  banks  and  flood  the  surrounding  country 
for  a  considerable  period  each  year.  Owing  to  the  great  precipita- 
tion and  subsequent  evaporation  the  heat  never  becomes  excessive, 
the  summer  and  winter  means  for  Manaos  being  82*°  F.  and 
80'°  F.  respectively.  The  soil  of  the  whole  region  is  generally 
fertile,  and  the  vegetation,  both  in  the  vicinity  of  the  rivers  and  on 
the  intervening  lands,  is  dense. 

Under  such  conditions  agriculture  is  practically  impossible,  and 
the  chief  products  are  those  of  the  tropical  forest.  Caoutchouc,  or 
rubber,  which  holds  the  first  place,  is  obtained  from  several  varieties 
of  Hevea,  Hevea  hrasiliensis  producing  the  best  quality  when  it  is 
grown  under  the  most  favourable  conditions,  that  is,  on  land  which 
is  flooded  for  a  considerable  part  of  each  year.  As  rubber  trees 
do  not  grow  in  close  formation,  but  are  scattered  throughout  the 
forest,  there  are  no  plantations  in  the  proper  care  and  develop- 
ment of  which  the  owners  take  a  genuine  interest.  The  result  is 
that  reckless  destruction  is  indulged  in  by  the  seringueiros,  whose 
sole  object  is  to  obtain  the  maximum  amount  of  rubber ;  and  every 
year  they  are  compelled  to  go  further  and  further  from  the  main 
streams,  where  the  trees  have  ceased  to  be  productive,  and  to 
enter  the  smaller  tributaries,  where  the  rubber  is  obtained  at  greater 
cost  and  greater  risk.    At  present  the  amount  which  is  obtained 

470 


BRAZIL  471 

from  plantations  in  the  Amazon  lowlands  is  negligible,  and  the 
prospects  of  a  substantial  increase  in  this  respect  are  not  bright. 
The  population  is  small — ^less  than  one  to  the  square  mile — and 
consists  largely  of  Indians,  or  of  immigrants  of  mixed  white  and 
Indian  blood  from  Ceara,  while  the  climatic  conditions  of  the 
region  are  such  as  to  deter  European  peoples  from  engaging  in 
manual  labour  within  it.  In  addition  to  the  product  of  Hevea 
brasiliensis,  known  on  the  market  as  Para  rubber,  caoutchouc  is 
extracted  from  several  other  trees  in  the  Brazilian  forest.  Of 
these,  the  most  important  are  Manihot,  from  which  Ceara  rubber, 
next  in  quality  to  Para,  is  obtained,  and  Mangabeira,  which  yields 
an  inferior  article  used  for  covering  cables  and  similar  purposes. 

Manaos,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Amazon  and  the  Rio  Negro,  is 
the  collecting  point  for  rubber  in  the  interior,  and  Para,  on  the 
Tocantins,  the  port  from  which  it  is  sent  abroad.  The  production 
of  rubber  in  the  basin  of  the  Amazon  during  the  years  1907-8-9-10, 
averaged  38,000  metric  tons  per  year,  or  over  55  per  cent,  of  the 
world's  supply.  Of  this,  about  35,000  tons  came  from  the 
Amazonian  lowlands  in  Brazil. 

Among  other  important  products  of  this  region  are  Brazil  nuts, 
cacao,  and  timber.  Cacao  has,  with  the  development  of  the  rubber 
industry,  become  of  less  importance  than  formerly.  The  trees  grow 
wild,  and  only  a  few  plantations  exist ;  but  one-seventh  of  the 
whole  Brazilian  crop  of  cacao  comes  from  this  region.  It  is  remarkable 
that  towns  like  Manaos  and  Para,  situated  in  the  great  selvas  of  South 
America,  should  import  more  timber  than  they  export,  but  it  is 
explained  by  the  great  diversity  of  trees  in  the  forest,  the  enormous 
amount  of  undergrowth,  the  scarcity  of  labour,  and  the  hardness 
of  the  wood  which  renders  it  unsuitable  for  many  purposes.  Cedar 
forms  the  principal  export. 

The  Atlantic  Margins. — ^The  coastal  regions  of  the  BraziHan 
massif,  from  the  State  of  San  Maranhao  to  that  of  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
may  be  considered  under  this  title,  although  several  subdivisions 
must  be  recognised.  The  north-eastern  part,  as  far  as  the  mouth 
of  the  Sao  Francisco,  consists  of  a  number  of  river  basins,  which 
have  the  same  general  character  as  regards  slope  and  soil,  and,  to 
some  extent,  climate.  The  temperature  throughout  is  tropical, 
but  the  rainfall  of  Ceara  ranges  from  about  20  to  60  inches,  while 
further    west    it    increases    to    80  inches    and    over.     From  the 


472  ECONOMIC    GEOGRAPHY 

mouth  of  the  Sao  Francisco  southwards,  the  slope  from  the  massif 
to  the  coastland  is  steeper  ;  the  rivers  are  shorter ;  the  temperature 
is  generally  tropical  on  the  lowlands  (except  in  the  south  where 
it  is  sub-tropical),  but  somewhat  cooler  on  the  uplands ;  and  the 
rainfall  is  heavy.  The  region  of  heavy  rainfall  does  not,  as  a  rule, 
extend  far  inland,  and  its  limits  may,  except  in  the  south,  be  con- 
sidered as  determining  the  limits  of  the  coastal  margins.  Through- 
out the  whole  region  the  products  are  similar,  but  the  north-eastern 
states,  with  the  exception  of  Ceara,  are  the  most  fertile,  and  yield 
large  quantities  of  cotton,  sugar,  and  rubber.  Cotton  is  grown, 
both  in  its  herbaceous  and  arborescent  forms,  on  the  coastal  plains 
as  well  as  in  the  interior.  On  the  plains,  the  plants  are  more  pro- 
ductive, but  suffer  in  wet  seasons  from  an  excess  of  moisture.  To  the 
world's  supply  of  raw  cotton,  Brazil  contributes  nearly  300,000  bales, 
and  of  that,  the  greater  part  is  grown  in  the  region  under  considera- 
tion. The  fibre  of  the  arborescent  varieties  is  longer  than,  but  not 
so  strong  as,  sea  island ;  the  cultivation  of  the  herbaceous  plant 
is,  however,  not  so  difficult,  and  consequently  it  predominates. 
Sugar-cane  is  grown  on  the  plains  where  the  cUmate  is  moist  and 
warm,  while  Manihot  and  Mangabeira  are  both  cultivated,  and 
at  present  give  better  returns  than  almost  any  other  agricultural 
product.  Cacao,  also  a  cultivated  plant  in  this  region,  which 
supplies  about  six-sevenths  of  the  Brazilian  crop,  is  grown  on  the 
coast  lands  of  Bahia,  and  is  exported  from  San  Salvador.  Brazil 
produces  altogether  about  one-sixth  of  the  world's  supply  of  cacao. 
Coffee  is  grown  throughout  the  greater  part  of  this  area,  but  not 
extensively,  except  in  the  south  where  Rio  de  Janeiro  produces  a 
considerable  amount. 

The  most  important  mineral  deposits  of  this  region  are  monazite 
sands,  from  which  thorium,  used  in  the  manufacture  of  gas  mantles, 
is  obtained.  These  sands  occur  along  the  coast  of  Bahia  and 
Espiritu  Santo,  and,  in  the  interior,  on  lands  formerly  occupied 
by  the  sea,  or  even  upon  the  banks  of  rivers. 

Manufactures  are  as  yet  of  little  importance  in  the  region,  except 
in  the  extreme  south,  where  the  state,  and  more  especially  the 
Federal  District,  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  is  the  seat  of  considerable  in- 
dustrial activity.  Encouraged  by  a  high  protective  tariff,  the  cotton 
industry  has  assumed  considerable  proportions  in  and  around  the 
capital,   where  there  are  also  numerous  woollen,  jute,   and  felt 


NATURAL    REGIONS    OF    BRAZIL 


30— (1326) 


474  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

factories,  establishments  for  the  preparation  of  food-stuffs,  sugar 
refineries,  iron  foundries,  etc.  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  the  Federal 
District  together  have  one-third  of  the  workmen  engaged  in  manu- 
facturing industry,  and  two-thirds  of  the  capital  invested  therein, 
in  the  whole  of  Brazil.  Elsewhere  on  the  coastal  margins,  the 
extraction  of  sugar,  the  preparation  of  brandy,  and  a  little  spinning 
and  weaving  are  the  chief  non-agricultural  pursuits  of  the  people 

The  Volcanic  Soils  of  Sao  Paulo. — From  the  state  of  Sao 
Paulo  southwards,  the  escarpment  becomes  much  steeper,  and 
separates  a  narrow  strip  of  coast  from  the  plateau  regions 
behind.  In  the  east  the  rocks  are  Archaean,  while,  in  the  west, 
sandstones,  associated  in  many  places  with  eruptive  rocks,  probably 
of  Tertiary  age,  prevail.  These  eruptive  rocks  are  rich  in  phos- 
phorus and  iron,  and  weather  down  into  a  dark-red  clay  soil, 
which  is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  growth  of  the  coffee  plant  when 
climatic  conditions  are  favourable,  as  is  the  case  in  the  southern 
part  of  Minas  Geraes,  and  in  at  least  the  eastern  half  of  Sao  Paulo. 
In  these  districts,  at  an  altitude  varying  from  1,500  or  1,800  feet 
to  2,500  feet,  has  been  concentrated  within  recent  years  the  greater 
part  of  the  Brazilian  coffee  industry,  which  now  provides  nearly  four- 
fifths  of  the  world's  supply.  But  the  rapid  development  of  coffee 
planting  in  this  region,  largely  by  means  of  imported  Italian  labour, 
has  not  been  without  its  drawbacks.  On  the  one  hand,  there 
has  been  the  neglect  of  various  crops  for  which  the  country  is 
suitable,  and,  on  the  other,  there  has  been  over-production  of 
coffee  to  such  an  extent  that  the  government  of  Sao  Paulo  has 
been  compelled,  in  years  of  abundant  crop,  to  buy  and  withhol 
from  sale  no  inconsiderable  part  of  the  output,  in  order  to  prevent 
too  great  a  depression  of  price  in  the  world's  markets.  This  policy, 
aided  by  a  diminution  of  production  elsewhere,  appears  to  have 
met,  so  far,  with  a  certain  amount  of  success.  At  the  same  time, 
fresh  plantations  have  been  prohibited  by  the  government. 

During  the  American  Civil  War  cotton  was  extensively  grown 
in  Sao  Paulo.  Since  then  its  cultivation  has  been  neglected  until 
recently,  when,  with  the  decline  in  the  price  of  coffee,  new  and 
apparently  successful  attempts  to  grow  it  once  more  on  a  large 
scale  have  been  made.  The  state  now  supplies  the  cotton  industry 
of  Sao  Paulo  with  a  considerable  amount  of  its  raw  material 
though  much  has  still  to  be  imported  from  Pernambuco. 


BRAZIL  475 

The  town  of  Sao  Paulo,  situated  on  the  route  from  the  coast  to 
I  the  plateau,  is  the  centre  of  the  manufacturing  district  in  Brazil, 
next  in  importance  to  that  situated  in  and  around  the  capital.  In 
addition  to  cotton  and  food-stuffs,  machinery  employed  in  the 
preparation  of  coffee  is  manufactured  on  a  considerable  scale. 
The  Temperate  South. — Climatic  conditions,  more  temperate 
I  than  further  north,  mark  off  the  country  south  of  the  state  of  Sao 
I  Paulo  as  a  separate  region.  The  land  is  generally  fertile  and  is 
covered  with  forests  in  which  clearings  have  been  made  by  colonies  of 
Germans,  ItaUans,  Poles,  and  others.  In  these  clearings,  agriculture 
of  a  somewhat  improvident  character  is  carried  on,  but  the  most 
important  product  of  the  region  is  yerba  mate,  which  grows  wild 
in  the  woods.  The  profits  derived  from  the  mate  harvest  have  done 
something  to  compensate  the  colonists  for  the  drawbacks  caused  by 
their  isolation  from  the  rest  of  the  country.  The  forests  of  this 
region  gradually  merge  in  the  south  and  west  into  the  grasslands, 
or  campos,  which  are  as  yet  devoted  entirely  to  stock-farming, 
a  pursuit  carried  on  by  the  race  of  the  Guanchos.  Much  of  the 
forested  area  will,  when  cleared  and  properly  cultivated,  prove  to 
be  excellent  agricultural  land  suitable  for  the  growth  of  wheat, 
but  there  is  still  uncertainty  whether  the  depth  of  the  soil  on  the 
campos  is  sufficient  to  permit  of  a  similar  result.  The  tanning  of 
leather,  which  is  the  chief  industry  of  the  region,  has  assumed 
considerable  proportions. 

The  principal  coalfields  of  Brazil  occur  in  the  upper  Carbon- 
iferous and  Permian  rocks  extending  from  the  state  of  Sao  Paulo  . 
to  that  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul.     The  coal  contains  a  large  pro- 
portion of  moisture  and  ash,  and  seems  to  be  of  most  value  when     \ 
converted  into  gas  for  use  in  gas-engines. 

The  Central  Region  lies  on  the  Brazilian  massif,  and  consists 
of  the  states  of  Matto  Grosso,  Goyaz,  and  Minas  Geraes,  together 
with  parts  of  the  adjacent  states.  Much  of  the  region  is  still 
unexplored,  and  its  geographical  features  are  but  imperfectly 
known.  The  nucleus  consists  of  Archaean  rocks,  though  over  large 
areas  these  are  covered  by  metamorphosed  and  unaltered  sedi- 
mentary rocks  of  Palaeozoic  age.  The  temperature  is  high  at  all 
seasons  of  the  year  except  in  the  south,  where  the  winters  are  mild. 
Over  the  greater  part  of  the  region  the  rainfall  varies  from  60 
to  80  inches,  but   in  the  north-east   it   is  considerably  less.     On 


476  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

the  lower  lands  and  in  the  river  valleys  there  are  forests ;  the  uplands 

are  generally  covered  with  grass ;  and  in  the  area  of  low  rainfall, 
caatinga  prevails.  The  population  is  small,  and  there  is  as  yet 
little  economic  development.  Matto  Grosso  is  practically  un- 
inhabited ;  in  Goyaz  cattle  are  raised  on  the  campos ;  and  the 
south-east  of  Minas  Geraes  is  devoted  to  agricultural  and  pastoral 
pursuits  for  the  benefit  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  Mate  grows  extensively 
in  the  south  of  Goyaz. 

When  this  region  has  been  more  fully  developed,  its  chief  source 
of  wealth  will  probably  be  found  in  its  great  mineral  deposits. 
For  long,  gold  and  diamonds  have  been  found  in  alluvial  formations  I 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  ancient  crystalline  rocks  which  form 
the  backbone  of  the  country,  and  they  still  are  a  valuable  export. 
Within  recent  years  large  deposits  of  iron  have  been  located,  but 
the  difficulties  of  transport  have  hitherto  prevented  their  proper 
exploitation.  The  best  known  district  is  in  Minas  Geraes,  in  that 
section  of  the  Espinhago  range  which  forms  the  divide  between 
the  Rio  Doce  and  the  Sao  Francisco.  In  the  metamorphosed 
sedimentary  beds,  which  here  overlie  the  crystalline  schists,  occurs 
the  iron-bearing  quartzite  known  as  "  itabirite."  In  places,  also, 
there  are  hills  of  iron  ore  which  is  almost  pure.  The  total  resources 
of  this  district  alone,  appear  from  all  accounts  to  be  enormous,  and 
would  seem  to  indicate  that  Brazil  may  one  day  be  the  greatest 
producer  of  iron  ore  in  the  world.  Among,  other  minerals  found 
in  the  Central  region  are  manganese,  cinnabar,  platinum,  graphite, 
etc. 

Communications  are  still  in  a  very  undeveloped  state.  The 
mountainous  nature  of  much  of  the  country,  the  steep  escarpment 
between  the  sea  and  the  interior,  the  heavy  rains,  and  the  luxuriant 
vegetation,  are  all  hostile  to  roads.  In  the  north,  the  Amazon  acts 
as  a  great  highway,  and  is  navigable  to  beyond  Iquitos  in  Peru  by 
ocean-going  steamers.  In  the  south,  around  Porto  Alegre,  there 
are  also  numerous  navigable  waterways,  but  elsewhere  the  rivers 
are  obstructed  by  falls,  and  the  traffic  upon  them  is  only  of  local 
importance.  Of  railways,  there  are  now  about  14,000  miles,  chiefly 
in  the  south  where  they  provide  but  an  imperfect  service.  The  5 
most  important  line  in  this  part  of  the  country  is  that  which  rum 
from  Rio  de  Janeiro,  by  Sao  Paulo  and  through  the  states  of  Parana,, 
Sta.  Catharina,  and  Rio  Grande,  to  Rivera  on  the  frontier,  whence;; 


BRAZIL  477 

there  is  connection  with  the  Uruguayan  system  and  Montevideo. 
This  Hne,  which  has  just  been  completed,  has  communication 
with  the  coast  at  various  points.  Another  important  Hne  runs 
from  the  city  of  Sao  Paulo  to  Itapura  on  the  Parana,  whence  it  is 
being  continued  to  the  Bolivian  frontier  at  Corumba  on  the  Para- 
guay. The  states  of  Sao  Paulo  and  Rio  de  Janeiro  are  well  pro- 
vided with  railways  as  a  result  of  the  growth  of  the  coffee  industry. 
From  the  capital,  a  line  goes  north-west  to  Minas  Geraes,  and  will 
eventually  be  carried  to  Goyaz  in  the  state  of  that  name.  In  the 
northern  part  of  the  country,  the  railways  run  directly  inland  from 
the  coast,  and  are  seldom  connected  with  one  another.  One  of  the 
most  important  connects  San  Salvador  with  the  Sao  Francisco. 
In  the  basin  of  the  Amazon,  the  Madeira-Mamor6  railway,  210 
miles  in  length,  is  being  constructed  round  the  cataracts  and  rapids 
of  the  Madeira  and  Mamore  rivers. 

Commerce. — ^The  chief  exports  of  Brazil  consist  of  coffee,  rubber, 
cacao,  mate,  and  hides  ;  coffee  and  rubber  together  account  for 
from  75  to  80  per  cent.,  and  coffee  alone  for  about  50  per  cent.,  of 
the  total  value  of  the  exports.  The  chief  markets  for  Brazilian 
coffee  are  in  the  United  States,  which  takes  from  40  to  45  per  cent. 
of  the  total  output,  and  Germany,  which  takes  from  15  to  20  per 
cent.  Rubber  ranks  next  in  importance.  Nearly  one-half  of  the 
Hevea  rubber  exported  goes  to  the  United  States,  while  of  the 
remainder  Great  Britain  takes  a  large  share.  Manicoba  finds 
its  chief  market  in  the  United  Kingdom.  Cacao  goes  in  the  main 
to  France,  the  United  States,  and  Germany ;  while  mate  is  sold 
to  the  Argentine,  Uruguay,  Chile,  and  the  countries  of  Central 
Europe, 

The  imports  consist  largely  of  manufactured  goods  and  food- 
stuffs. In  the  first  of  these  Great  Britain  has  the  lion's  share,  and 
supplies  the  bulk  of  the  textiles  and  much  of  the  iron  and  steel 
goods  imported  into  the  country.  The  natural  expansion  of  her 
trade  in  textiles  has,  however,  been  seriously  checked  by  the 
development  of  the  Brazilian  cotton  industry,  and,  in  regard  to  iron 
and  steel  goods,  she  is  beginning  to  feel  the  pressure  of  her  great 
rivals  in  Brazil — Germany  and  the  United  States.  Food  supplies 
come  in  the  main  from  the  United  States  and  Argentina,  flour 
from  Argentina  but  also  from  the  United  States,  dried  beef 
from  Uruguay    and    Argentina,   cod    from    Newfoundland,   and 


478  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

macaroni  from  Italy.  The  import  of  food-stuffs  is  showing  little 
sign  of  expansion,  and  will,  indeed,  probably  tend  to  decrease  in 
the  future,  as  the  southern  part  of  Minas  Geraes  becomes  better 
equipped  for  supplying  the  demands  of  the  capital.  During  the 
five  years  1906-10  the  annual  value  of  the  exports  was  £55,000,000, 
and  of  the  imports  £39,000,000. 

Conclusion. — Brazil,  with  its  great  natural  resources — ^mineral 
wealth,  water-power,  productive  climate,  and  valuable  forests — 
would  appear  to  have  an  assured  future,  but  economic  development 
will  be  slow.  Tropical  climate  renders  a  great  part  of  the  country 
unsuitable  for  white  labour,  the  topography  of  the  land  makes 
communication  difficult,  the  population  is  small  and  composed  of 
diverse  elements,  and  unstable  political  conditions  have  affected 
the  investment  of  capital.  These  are  obstacles  to  progress  which 
can  only  slowly  be  overcome. 

The  Guiana  Colonies 

The  Guiana  Colonies  lie  upon  the  north-east  slope  of  the  Guiana 
Highland.  Along  the  seaboard  of  British  and  Dutch  Guiana, 
there  is  a  low-lying  coastal  plain,  which  is  subject  to  flooding,  but 
parts  of  which  have  been  embanked  and  converted  into  good 
agricultural  land.  The  lower  slopes  of  the  Highland  are  covered 
by  dense  forests,  which  in  the  interior  give  place  to  savannas.  The 
whole  region  is  yet  in  a  very  undeveloped  condition.  British 
Guiana,  which  has  a  mixed  population  of  about  300,000,  produces 
sugar,  rubber,  and  tobacco.  The  chief  exports  of  Dutch  Guiana 
are  somewhat  similar,  but  gold  is  also  obtained.  In  French  Guiana 
gold  is  the  main  object  of  economic  activity. 


CHAPTER  XLIV 

paraguay  and  uruguay 

Paraguay 

Paraguay,  with  an  area  of  172,000  square  miles,  belongs  to  two  very 
different  regions.  Eastern  Paraguay,  which  lies  between  the  Parana 
and  Paraguay  rivers,  is  part  of  the  western  slope  of  the  Brazilian 
Highland,  but  the  hills  seldom  reach  a  height  of  over  2,000 
feet,  and  the  general  elevation  of  the  country  is  probably  between 
500  and  600  feet.  The  climate  has  been  described  as  three  months 
of  summer,  during  which  the  mean  temperature  is  over  80°  F.,  and 
nine  months  of  spring,  during  which  it  is  between  60°  F.  and  80°  F. 
The  rainfall  is  heaviest  in  the  summer  months,  when  the  south- 
east trade  winds  make  their  way  up  the  estuary  of  La  Plata.  In 
the  north  of  the  region  over  60  inches  of  rain  faU,  and  in  the 
south  over  40  inches.  Much  of  the  land  is  covered  with  dense 
forest,  but  there  are  extensive  tracts  of  country  covered  with 
grass. 

It  is  in  Eastern  Paraguay  that  the  majority  of  the  800,000 
inhabitants  of  the  country  are  found.  These  are  generally  people 
of  mixed  Indian  and  Spanish  blood,  the  native  Indians,  of  whom 
it  is  estimated  that  there  are  100,000,  being  chiefly  in  the  Chaco. 

Cattle-raising,  which  has  made  great  progress  within  recent  years, 
is  the  most  important  industry  in  the  country,  which  probably 
contains  about  3,000,000  head;  and  over  40  per  cent,  of  Paraguay's 
exports  consist  of  meat,  hides,  and  tallow.  Salting  works,  packing 
establishments,  and  extract  factories,  have  all  sprung  up  within 
recent  years.  Sheep  farming  is  also  carried  on,  and  an  increasing 
amount  of  wool  from  Paraguay  is  exported  each  year  through  the 
Uruguayan  port  of  Montevideo.  When  the  native  sheep  are 
crossed  with  better  strains  from  Europe,  it  is  probable  that  this 
industry  will  become  of  considerable  importance. 

Yerba  mate,  or  Paraguayan  tea,  is  obtained  by  drying  and  grind- 
ing into  a  kind  of  coarse  powder  the  leaves  and  twigs  of  an  evergreen 
shrub  known  as  Ilex  paraguensis.  When  infused,  it  yields  a 
drink  used  as  a  tonic  and  stimulant,  which  is  much  in  request 
throughout  South  America,  and  which  is  beginning  to  make    its 

479 


480  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

way  into  Europe.  The  yerba  plant  is  found  in  a  wild  condition 
especially  in  the  north  and  east  of  Eastern  Paraguay,  but  attempts 
are  now  being  made  to  cultivate  it  on  a  large  scale.  Mate  ranks 
next  to  the  products  of  the  cattle  ranches  among  the  exports  of 
the  country. 

Western  Paraguay,  which  lies  between  the  Paraguay  and  the 
Pilcomayo,  belongs  to  the  bed  of  the  ancient  Pampean  Sea,  and 
really  forms  part  of  the  Gran  Chaco.  Its  climate  is  moister  than 
that  of  the  previous  region,  and,  as  the  drainage  is  bad,  many 
swamps  are  formed.  Elsewhere,  the  land  is  covered  with  forest 
and  jungle.  The  whole  region  is  as  yet  in  a  state  of  nature, 
quebracho,  used  for  tanning  purposes,  and  timber  (which  is  also 
exported  from  Eastern  Paraguay)  being  its  chief  products  at  present. 
It  is  believed  to  be  capable  of  considerable  development. 

The  backward  condition  of  Paraguay  is  due,  in  part  to  the  de- 
vastating wars  waged  against  its  neighbours,  in  part  to  its  distance 
from  the  great  lines  of  communication.  A  railway  now  runs  from 
Asuncion,  the  capital,  to  Villa  Encarnacion,  on  the  Parana.  Opposite 
Villa  Encarnacion  is  Posadas  the  terminus  of  the  Argentine  North- 
Eastern  railway,  so  that  Asuncion  is  now  within  fifty  hours  of 
Buenos  Aires  by  rail  instead  of  five  days  by  boat,  as  hitherto. 

Uruguay 

Uruguay  has  an  area  of  72,000  square  miles,  and  is  the  smallest 
of  the  South  American  states.  Physically  it  belongs  to  the  southern 
slope  of  the  Brazilian  Highland,  but  the  relief  of  the  country  is 
slight,  the  hills  are  of  low  elevation,  and  wide  rolling  plains  constitute 
the  greater  part  of  the  surface.  The  climate  is  cooler  than  in 
Paraguay,  the  mean  summer  temperature  being  between  70°  F. 
and  80°  F.,  while  the  mean  winter  temperature  over  the  greater 
part  of  the  country  is  from  50°  F.  to  55°  F.  Rain  falls  at  aU  seasons 
of  the  year,  but  especially  in  summer,  and  the  mean  annual  pre- 
cipitation is  from  40  to  60  inches.  The  prevailing  type  of 
vegetation  is  grassland,  trees  being  found  chiefly  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  river  courses. 

The  land  is  pre-eminently  suitable  for  grazing  purposes ;  and 
pastoral  pursuits,  and  subsidiary  industries  connected  with  them, 
occupy  the  great  majority  of  the  population.  In  1908,  the  last 
year  for  which  there  are  official  statistics,  it  was  estimated  that 


PARAGUAY  AND   URUGUAY  481 

there  were  8,000,000  cattle,  26,000,000  sheep,  and  large  numbers  of 
horses  and  pigs  in  the  country.  The  cattle  and  sheep  form  the 
basis  of  the  export  trade,  consisting  of  chilled  meat,  beef  extract, 
hides,  and  wool.  The  firm  of  Liebig  has  large  works  at  Paysandu 
and  Fray  Bentos,  on  the  Uruguay.  For  a  time  it  seemed  as  if 
these  would  be  transferred  to  Colon,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Uruguay 
in  the  Argentine,  owing  to  the  high  export  duty  on  beef  extract 
levied  by  the  Uruguayan  government.  This,  fortunately,  has 
recently  been  considerably  reduced. 

Arable  farming  is  only  followed  to  a  slight  extent  at  present, 
but  within  the  last  few  years  wheat  and  flour,  maize  and  linseed, 
have  all  been  exported. 

Montevideo  is  the  centre  of  the  railway  system  ;  the  main  lines 
run  to  Fray  Bentos,  to  Paysandu,  and  to  the  Brazilian  frontier, 
whence  there  is  communication  with  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

The  exports  (wool,  hides,  meat,  and  beef-extract)  go  mainly  to 
France,  Argentina,  Belgium,  and  Germany,  while  the  imports 
come  from  the  United  Kingdom,  Germany,  and  France.  The 
total  trade  had  an  average  value  of  £16,000,000  during  the  years 
1906-10. 


CHAPTER  XLV 

THE  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC 

The  Argentine  Republic  has  an  area  of  1,153,000  square  miles, 
or  a  little  less  than  one-sixth  that  of  the  continent  of  South  America. 
The  physical  and  climatic  conditions  of  the  country  render  it 
especially  suitable  for  economic  development,  and  it  is  one  of  the 
most  important,  and  perhaps  the  most  progressive,  of  South 
American  states. 

The  Forest  Region. — Several  natural  regions  are  marked  out 
by  differences  in  physical  and  geological  structure,  climate,  and 
vegetation.  In  the  north  is  the  Forest  Region,  comprising  the 
territories  of  Formosa  and  Chaco,  along  with  the  neighbouring  parts 
of  the  provinces  of  Santa  Fe,  Salta,  Santiago  del  Estero,  and  Entre 
Rios.  This  region  presents  the  appearance  of  a  vast  plain  of 
low  elevation,  sloping  on  the  whole  from  west  to  east,  and  forming 
part  of  the  ancient  bed  of  the  Pampean  Sea.  With  it  may  be 
included  for  present  purposes  the  territory  of  Misiones,  a  volcanic 
spur  of  somewhat  greater  elevation,  extending  from  the  BraziUan 
massif.  The  mean  summer  temperature  ranges  from  about  77°  F. 
to  85°  F.,  and  that  of  winter  does  not  fall  below  58°  F.  The  pre- 
cipitation, except  in  Misiones  where  it  is  somewhat  greater, 
decreases  from  about  45  inches  in  the  east  to  between  20  and  25 
inches  in  the  west. 

The  whole  region  is  covered  with  forest  to  a  greater  or  less  extent, 
and,  although  much  of  this  forest  is  inaccessible,  its  products  are 
valuable.  Two  species  of  quebracho  are  found  in  it,  and  from 
one  of  these — Aspidosperma  quebracho — ^tannin,  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  leather,  is  obtained ;  large  quantities  both  of  tannin 
and  quebracho  wood  are  exported  annually,  and  the  timber  itself 
is  much  in  demand  for  railway  construction  and  other  purposes. 
Quebracho  is  in  fact  at  the  present  time  the  chief  basis  of  industry 
over  a  great  part  of  the  forested  area.  Other  trees  producing  hard 
timber  are  also  found  in  abundance.  Yerba  mate  flourishes  on 
the  volcanic  soils  of  Misiones,  but  there  seems  no  reason  why  its 
cultivation  should  not  be  extended  into  the  territory  of  Chaco  and 
elsewhere,  as  at  present  large  quantities  of  it  have  to  be  imported 
into  Argentina  from  Paraguay. 

482 


484  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

The  Forest  Region  is  inhabited  chiefly  by  Indians  ;  the  facili- 
ties for  communication  are  Hmited;  and  economic  development 
has  been  slow.  It  is  said  that  much  land  in  the  less  densely 
forested  parts,  away  from  the  rivers,  is  suitable  for  grazing  purposes  ; 
and  it  is  not  impossible,  therefore,  that  the  future  may  see  a  con- 
siderable movement  of  white  settlers  from  the  south,  when  the 
vacant  places  there  have  been  filled  up. 

The  Grassland  Region,  which  includes  the  province  of  Buenos 
Aires,  the  neighbouring  parts  of  Entre  Rios,  Santa  Fe,  Cordoba, 
and  the  territory  of  La  Pampa,  and  the  more  distant  province  of 
Corrientes,  is  the  most  important  in  the  Republic.  The  land,  like 
that  of  the  previous  region,  belonged  to  the  bed  of  the  Pampean 
Sea  ;  in  the  centre  and  west  it  is  generally  flat,  while  in  the  north 
and  south  it  tends  to  be  undulating.  The  soil,  which  consists  in 
great  part  of  alluvial  deposits  derived  from  granitic  and  volcanic 
rocks,  is  very  fertile  and  easily  tilled.  The  climate  is  temperate, 
the  whole  region  lying  in  summer  between  the  isotherms  of  68°  F. 
and  80°  F.,  and  in  winter  between  those  of  46°  F.  and  57°  F.  The 
mean  annual  rainfall  varies  from  about  15  inches  in  the  west  and 
south  to  over  45  inches  in  the  north-east.  In  the  vicinity  of  the 
rivers,  hygrophilous  grasses  grow  on  the  river  alluvium,  but  elsewhere 
the  Pampas  grasses  constitute  the  prevaihng  type  of  natural 
vegetation. 

On  the  whole  these  geographical  conditions  are  favourable  to 
agriculture,  but  other  factors  have  contributed  to  the  development 
of  this  region.  Its  climate  is  extremely  well  suited  to  South 
European  races ;  while  the  Indians  are  few,  as  the  products  of 
the  region  were  never  such  as  to  encourage  a  great  increase 
in  their  numbers.  The  rivers,  the  natural  highways  of  the 
country,  converge  on  the  estuary  of  La  Plata,  to  which  the  best 
agricultural  lands  are  contiguous,  and  the  progress  of  these  has 
been  rapid  with  the  growing  demand  from  Europe  for  wheat  and 
meat.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  this  region,  which  con- 
tains the  greater  part  of  the  cultivable  soil  of  the  republic,  has  over 
two-thirds  of  its  population  and  is  the  centre  of  its  economic 
development. 

Within  the  last  fifteen  years,  the  area  under  wheat  has  been 
trebled,  and  at  the  same  time  there  has  been  a  considerable  move- 
ment southwards  of  the  centre  of  production.    In  1898,  Santa  Fe  and 


THE  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC  485 

Cordoba  produced  about  two-thirds  of  the  whole  crop,  while  in 
1911  the  relative  production  was  as  follows  :  Buenos  Aires,  40  per 
cent. ;  Cordoba,  32  per  cent. ;  Santa  Fe,  13  per  cent. ;  Entre  Rios, 
3  per  cent. ;  La  Pampa,  7  per  cent.  ;  other  districts,  5  per  cent. 

The  area,  within  which  fertiHty  of  the  soil,  favourable  climate,  and 
facilities  for  cultivation  render  possible  the  growth  of  wheat,  is 
limited  on  the  north  and  north-west  by  increasing  heat  and  moisture, 
and  on  the  west  and  south  by  decreasing  precipitation.  These 
limits  have  not  yet  been  exactly  determined,  but  in  Santa  Fe 
and  Cordoba  the  best  wheat  land  lies  south  of  a  line  connecting 
the  towns  of  Rosario  and  Cordoba  ;  while  on  the  south  and  south- 
west it  seems  possible  to  extend  the  cultivation  of  wheat  to  the 
borders  of  the  region  under  consideration.  No  accurate  data 
yet  exist  to  enable  a  correct  estimate  of  the  potential  extent  of 
the  wheat-growing  lands  of  the  Argentine  to  be  made,  but  that 
the  present  area  of  15,000,000  acres  could  easily  be  trebled  seems 
beyond  a  doubt. 

The  average  yield  for  the  last  ten  years  does  not  much  exceed 
ten  bushels  per  acre.  Various  circumstances  tend  to  account  for 
this.  It  is  only  gradually  that  wheat  is  leaving  the  less  suitable 
north  for  the  more  suitable  south ;  great  losses  are  occasionally 
sustained  from  prolonged  droughts  or  locust  invasions ;  above  all 
thej^outh  European  is  slovenly  and  uninteUigent  in  his  methods 
of  agriculture,  and,  until  he  realises  the  necessity  of  deeper  ploughing 
and  more  careful  selection  of  seed,  the  yield  per  acre  is  likely  to 
remain  low. 

Maize,  which  has  also  made  considerable  progress  within  recent 
years,  is  grown  chiefly  to  the  east  of  the  wheat  region,  on  the  alluvial 
soils  of  the  Parana,  where  the  rainfall  is  heavier  than  further  west, 
and  cultivation  easier  than  in  the  north.  In  1911,  the  area  under 
this  crop  amounted  to  over  seven  and  a  half  milhon  acres,  of  which 
about  three-fourths  were  situated  in  the  two  provinces  of  Buenos 
Aires  and  Santa  Fe.  A  comparatively  small  portion  of  the  product 
is  used  for  feeding  stock,  and  the  greater  part  of  it  is  exported.  Flax 
is  grown  for  the  sake  of  its  seed  in  the  same  region  as  maize,  but 
it  does  not,  at  the  outside,  occupy  more  than  one-half  of  the  area 
taken  up  by  that  cereal.  Argentina  is  nevertheless  the  leading 
exporter  of  flax  seed  in  the  world. 

Improved   methods    in    breeding    and    in    raising   cattle,    the 


486  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

increasing  demand  from  foreign  countries  for  meat,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  communications,  including  the  use  of  refrigerating  apparatus, 
have  entirely  altered  the  character  of  the  stock-raising  industry  of 
the  Argentine,  and  cattle  are  no  longer  reared  for  their  hides  and 
tallow  alone.  Of  the  30,000,000,  or  thereabouts,  in  the  RepubHc, 
more  than  three-fourths  are  found  in  this  region,  where  climatic 
conditions  allow  them  to  live  out  of  doors  throughout  the  year 
In  the  north,  large  numbers  feed  upon  the  thick  annual  grass  of 
the  well-watered  provinces  of  Corrientes  and  Entre  Rios.  Elsewhere, 
as  in  the  province  of  Buenos  Aires,  the  carrying  capacity  of  the 
land  has  been  considerably  raised,  either  by  sowing  alfalfa,  the 
roots  of  which  draw  moisture  from  the  subsoil,  or  by  steady  grazing, 
which  has  the  effect  of  greatly  improving  the  Pampas  grasses. 
The  native  cattle  have  also  been  much  improved  within  recent  years 
by  a  careful  and  liberal  importation  by  the  government  of  prize 
animals  selected  from  the  best  of  the  British  breeds.  The  pre- 
paration for  export  of  frozen  meat  and  hides,  and  the  manufacture 
of  various  extracts  of  beef,  are  among  the  most  important  pursuits 
based  upon  the  stock-raising  industry,  but  a  beginning  has  also 
been  made  in  scientific  dairying,  and  considerable  quantities  of 
butter  are  exported. 

Sheep-raising  has  recently  begun  to  show  a  serious  decline  in  this 
region.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  in  the  state  of  Buenos  Aires, 
in  which  a  large  proportion  of  the  Argentine  sheep  are  found,  the 
moister  lands  further  north  being  unsuitable  to  them,  the  laying 
down  of  alfalfa,  on  which  cattle  pay  better  than  sheep,  has  led  to 
the  expulsion  of  the  latter  from  much  of  the  more  favoured  land. 
At  the  same  time,  the  production  of  mutton  has  become  much  more 
important  than  that  of  wool,  and  there  has  been  a  considerable 
diminution  in  the  export  of  the  latter  commodity. 

The  Sub-Andine  Region. — Beyond  the  grassland  regions  there 
lies  to  the  north-west,  west,  and  south,  a  country  of  thorn  scrub, 
which  passes  gradually  into  one  where  poor  steppe  or  semi-desert 
conditions  prevail.  The  whole  of  this  region,  which  may  be  called 
the  sub-Andine  Region,  can  be  divided  into  two  parts — a  northern 
and  a  southern.  To  the  north  of  the  thirty-fifth  parallel  the  land 
generally  exceeds  1,500  feet  in  height ;  in  winter  it  lies  between  the 
isotherms  of  43°  and  68°  F.,  and  in  summer  between  those  of 
71°  F.  and  82°  F.,  the  actual  temperature  varying  with  altitude; 


THE  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC  487 

and  the  rainfall  is  low,  rarely  exceeding  10  or  12  inches. 
Notwithstanding  these  apparently  unfavourable  climatic  condi- 
tions, this  region  is  far  from  being  undeveloped.  The  rivers  from 
the  Andes  are  utilised  for  irrigation,  and,  besides  alfalfa  and 
maize,  many  sub-tropical  fruits  are  grown  in  the  valleys  of  those 
districts  which  lie  near  the  Andes  or  on  the  east  of  the  Sierra  de 
Cordoba.  The  cultivation  of  sugar  is  the  chief  industry  of 
Tucuman,  and  Mendoza  has  long  been  noted  for  its  vineyards. 
Tobacco,  cotton,  and  hemp  are  also  grown  in  this  region. 

The  southern  part  of  the  sub-Andine  region  stretches  from  the 
thirty-fifth  parallel  to  the  extremity  of  the  continent.  The  eleva- 
tion of  the  land  is  less  than  in  the  north,  the  temperature  much 
lower,  and  the  rainfall,  except  along  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  no  greater. 
In  the  territories  of  the  Chubut  and  Rio  Negro,  especially  in  the 
valleys,  where  irrigation  is  possible  and  where  there  is  a  fertile  soil, 
good  wheat  crops  have  recently  been  raised.  These  districts  are, 
however,  too  remote  from  the  main  lines  of  communication  to 
possess  much  importance  at  the  present  time.  Stock-raising  is 
gradually  becoming  a  considerable  industry  in  the  region.  Sheep 
are  able  to  stand  the  cold  of  winter,  and  it  is  probable  that  one- 
fifth  of  the  total  number  of  sheep  in  the  Argentine  are  south  of 
the  Rio  Colorado.  Cattle  are  found  chiefly  in  the  west  along  the 
foothills  of  the  Andes,  where  much  good  grazing  land  is  believed 
to  exist. 

Manufactures. — So  far,  economic  development  has  been  of  an 
agricultural  rather  than  of  an  industrial  nature.  The  only  im- 
portant manufactures  are  those  which  prepare  for  the  market  the 
raw  material  produced  at  home,  flour-milling,  sugar-refining, 
wine-making,  meat-freezing,  dairying,  the  extraction  of  quebracho, 
etc.  The  extent  of  the  mineral  resources  of  the  country  are  only 
partially  known,  but  as  yet  they  have  proved  of  no  great  value. 
Gold,  iron,  copper,  and  lead  occur  in  various  places,  and  small 
quantities  of  coal  are  obtained,  but  borax,  from  the  northern  part 
of  the  sub-Andine  region,  is  the  only  mineral  at  present  noteworthy. 

Communications. — ^The  communications  of  the  country  are  as 
yet  only  partially  developed.  The  waterways  are  of  considerable 
importance,  more  especially  in  the  woodland  region,  where  they 
still  constitute  the  chief  means  of  transport.  The  Paraguay  and 
the  Parana  are  navigable  throughout  the  whole  of  their  course 


488  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

within  the  Argentine,  while  the  Uruguay  may  be  ascended  as  far 
as  Salto.  Rosario  is  the  present  head  of  navigation  for  sea-going 
vessels  on  the  Parana,  and  Paysandu  occupies  a  similar  position 
on  the  Uruguay.  When  plans  for  dredging  the  bed  of  the 
Paraguay-Parana  have  been  carried  out,  ocean-going  steamers 
will  be  able  to  load  at  Asuncion,  1,000  miles  from  the  Atlantic; 
and  that  town,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Paraguay  and  Pilcomayo, 
and  Corrientes,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Paraguay  and  Parana, 
will  become  important  river  ports.  By  removing  some  rocks 
and  gravel  from  the  Uruguay,  that  river  might  be  ascended  from 
the  sea  as  far  as  Concordia. 

There  are  now  in  the  Argentine  19,000  miles  of  railway,  constructed 
largely  by  British  capital,  and  situated  chiefly  in  the  valley  of  the 
Parana  and  in  the  wheat-growing  districts.  Among  the  most 
important  hues  are  the  Buenos  Aires  Great  Southern,  which  serves 
the  province  of  Buenos  Aires,  and  goes  to  Neuquen,  but  has  the 
greater  part  of  its  system  within  200  miles  of  the  capital  or  Bahia 
Blanca ;  the  Central  Argentine,  which  runs  from  Rosario  to 
Cordoba  and  Tucuman ;  a  government  line  from  San  Cristobal 
by  Tucuman  and  Jujuy  to  La  Quiaca  on  the  frontier  of  Bolivia  ;  the 
Entre  Rios  and  Argentine  North  Eastern,  which  serves  the  country 
to  the  east  of  the  Parana ;  and  last,  but  not  least,  the  Buenos 
Aires  and  Pacific,  which  connects  with  the  Chilean  railway  to 
Valparaiso  by  means  of  the  tunnel  under  the  Uspallata  Pass.  The 
heavy  gradients  on  the  Andine  sections  of  this  line,  the  break  of 
gauge  at  Mendoza  and  again  at  Los  Andes  on  the  Chilean  side  of 
the  frontier,  and  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the  line  open  in  the  moun- 
tains during  the  winter  months,  will  all  tend  to  prevent  much 
heavy  traffic  on  this  route,  though  it  will  probably  become  very 
popular  for  the  conveyance  of  passengers. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  these  railways  are  all  connected  with 
one  or  other  of  the  chief  ports  of  the  country  :  Buenos  Aires  and 
La  Plata,  Rosario,  and  Bahia  Blanca.  Through  the  first  of  these 
pass  the  greater  part  of  the  imports  and  no  inconsiderable  share 
of  the  exports  of  the  whole  country.  La  Plata,  connected  by  rail 
with  the  capital,  is  principally  used  by  ships  unable,  on  account 
of  their  size,  to  ascend  higher  up  the  river.  Rosario,  which  comes 
second  to  Buenos  Aires  in  respect  to  tonnage,  is  the  agricultural 
port  of  the  Parana  valley  and  of  all  that  northern  region  the  trade 


THE  ARGENTINE  REPUBLIC  489 

of  which  is  chiefly  carried  by  the  rivers.  With  the  improvement 
of  its  harbour,  now  in  progress,  and  the  deepening  of  the  Parana, 
it  will  become  of  even  greater  importance.  Bahia  Blanca,  in  the 
south  of  the  province  of  Buenos  Aires,  is  the  terminus  of  those 
lines  which  are  opening  up  the  more  southerly  parts  of  the  sub- 
Andine  Region.  Much  wool  is  exported  here,  as  also  is  wheat 
from  Central  Pampa. 

Agricultural  and  pastoral  products,  along  with  quebracho, 
constitute  practically  the  whole  of  the  exports,  the  annual  value 
of  which,  in  the  years  1906-10,  was  estimated  at  £69,000,000.  Of 
this  amount  the  United  Kingdom  took  one-fifth,  Germany  one- 
ninth,  and  France  and  Belgium  about  one-tenth  each.  The  imports, 
valued  in  1906-10  at  £60,000,000,  consist  chiefly  of  coal  and  manu- 
factured goods  (textiles,  rolhng  stock,  iron  and  steel  goods,  food, 
and  agricultural  implements).  From  the  United  Kingdom  came 
33  per  cent,  of  the  total,  from  Germany,  15  per  cent.,  and  from  the 
United  States  14  per  cent. 

The  rapid  development  of  the  country  within  the  last  thirty  years 
is  shown  by  the  increase  in  the  amount  of  exports  and  imports, 
from  £20,000,000  in  1880  to  £145,000,000  in  1910,  an  increase 
due  to  the  favourable  conditions  of  soil  and  climate,  the  growing 
demand,  from  Europe  for  agricultural  and  pastoral  products,  the 
improved  means  of  communication,  and  the  steady  flow  of  im- 
migrants, especially  from  South  European  countries.  Between 
1857  and  1880, 400,000  immigrants  entered  the  country.  Since  the 
latter  date  there  have  been  2,470,000,  many  of  whom,  however, 
have  not  remained  in  the  Argentine  for  more  than  a  few  years. 


31— (1336) 


AUSTRALASIA 


CHAPTER  XLVI 

AUSTRALIA 

The  Commonwealth  of  Australia,  which  includes  Tasmania,  has 
an  area  of  2,974,581  square  miles,  and  is  just  over  three-fourths 
the  size  of  Europe.  In  its  general  form  the  island  continent  consists 
of  a  plateau,  with  an  average  elevation  of  about  1,000  feet,  but  a 
number  of  distinct  physical  regions  may  be  recognised.  The 
Eastern  Highlands  extend  from  Cape  York  southwards,  and  occupy 
the  eastern  parts  of  Queensland,  New  South  Wales,  and  Victoria, 
and  the  whole  of  Tasmania.  They  do  not  form  a  true  mountain 
range,  but  represent  the  dissected  escarpment  of  a  fractured  pene- 
plain, the  eastern  part  of  which  has  sunk  below  the  level  of  the 
ocean.  In  the  north  of  the  range  there  is  a  great  block  of  Archaean 
age  ;  in  the  centre  Carboniferous  rocks  predominate,  though  others, 
ranging  from  Archaean  to  Triassic,  are  also  found;  while  in  the 
south  the  strata  belong  to  lower  Palaeozoic  times  with  Archaean 
outcrops. 

Between  the  Eastern  Highlands  and  the  sea,  there  stretches  a 
series  of  coastal  plains  composed  of  materials  washed  down  from 
the  uplands  and  recently  uplifted  above  sea-level.  These  plains 
vary  in  breadth,  but  seldom  exceed  fifty  miles  and  are  frequently 
much  less. 

The  Eastern  Highlands  present  their  steep  sides  towards  the 
east  coast,  and  slope  gently  westwards  towards  the  Great  Plains, 
which  form  an  area  of  depression  stretching  across  AustraHa  from 
the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria  to  the  west  coast  of  Victoria.  In  the 
north  and  centre  this  region  consists  of  Cretaceous  rocks,  but  in 
the  south  it  is  covered  with  silt  brought  down  by  the  Darling, 
Murrumbidgee,  and  other  rivers  during  Tertiary  times.  Of  the 
Cretaceous  rocks  the  Rolling  Downs  formation,  as  will  be  shown 
later,  is  of  great  importance  because  of  its  influence  upon  the  develop- 
ment of  irrigation.  The  northern  part  of  the  Great  Plains  drains 
to  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  the  southern  part  to  the  Murray, 
and  the  western,  which  is  an  area  of  inland  drainage,  to  Lake  Eyre. 
West  of  the  Great  Plains,  and  of  the  South  Australian  Highlands 
which  he  to  the  south  of  Lake  Eyre,  the  Western  Plateau  covers 

493  ' 


494  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

the  greater  part  of  the  remainder  of  the  continent.  It  consists, 
in  the  main,  of  a  block  of  Archaean  age  which  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  under  water  since  early  geological  times.  In  the  north- 
east, however,  considerable  tracts  are  covered  with  lower  Palaeozoic 
rocks,  while,  in  the  south,  the  NuUabor  plains,  which  make  a  great 
indentation  in  the  plateau,  belong  to  the  Tertiary  period.  Along 
the  west  and  north-west  coasts  there  are  narrow  plains,  also  oi 
Tertiary  formation. 

Climate. — ^The  climatic  factor  exercises  a  very  important  contro| 
upon  the  economic  development  of  Australia.  The  continent  lit 
between  the  tenth  and  the  fortieth  parallels,  and  from  one-third  t< 
two-fifths  of  it  falls  within  the  tropics.  During  summer  the  heat  o^ 
the  continental  interior  is  very  great,  and  in  some  districts  th< 
maximum  shade  temperature  may  be  above  100°  F.  for  days,  o^ 
even  weeks,  continuously.  In  January,  the  hottest  month,  th< 
isotherms  range  from  64°  F.,  in  the  south,  to  over  90°  F.,  ii 
the  northern  part  of  the  Western  Plateau.  Variations  of  temperatun 
are  naturally  greatest  in  the  interior,  and,  south  of  the  tropi( 
ground  frosts  occasionally  occur  at  night.  On  the  lowlanc 
and  more  especially  around  the  coast,  these  are  rare,  and  snowj 
though  it  occasionally  falls  in  the  south-east,  never  lies.  In  th< 
highlands  it  is  otherwise,  and  in  the  Australian  Alps  of  New  Soutl 
Wales  and  Victoria  the  ground  is  white  for  several  months  eacl 
year.  In  July,  the  coldest  month,  the  continent  lies  between  th< 
isotherms  of  45°  F.  and  80°  F. 

The  distribution  of  rainfall  is  determined  by  several  factor 
In  smnmer,  when  the  equatorial  low  pressure  belt  has  movt 
southwards,  and  when  the  area  of  minimum  pressure  lies  over  th< 
northern  part  of  the  Western  Plateau,  the  trade  winds  of  the  northei 
hemisphere  are  pulled  across  the  equator  and  blow  as  north  an< 
north-west  monsoons.    These  bring jnuchjngisture,  especially  t< 
the  northern  shores  of  the  continent,  though  their  influence  is  fel^ 
far  to  the  south.     At  the  same  time,  the  east  coast  of  AustraU^ 
receives  a  considerable  amount  of  rain  from  the  south-east  tradj 
winds  which  blow  upon  it.     On  the  west  coast,  on  the  other  hanc 
the  precipitation  at  this  time  of  the  year  is  very  sUght,  as  th^ 
winds,  which  blow  towards  it  from  the  high-pressure  area  ov( 
the  sea,  are  either  turning  round  into  the  trade-wind  system,  an( 
therefore  away  from  the  land  ;   or,  as  they  have  previously  crossec 


496  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

the  cold  current  flowing  along  the  west  coast  of  Australia,  they  are 
heated  by  their  contact  with  the  land,  and  therefore  do  not  deposit 
the  moisture  they  contain. 

In  the  jyinjer  months,  conditions  are  greatly  changed.  There  is 
no  longer  a  heavy  rainfall  in  the  north,  and,  while  the  trade  winds 
still  bring  a  certain  amount  of  m6isture  to  the  east  coast,  they  do 
not  penetrate  far  inland.  But,  as  the  whole  wind  system  has  moved 
northwards,  the  south-west  of  Western  Australia,  the  southern 
part  of  South  Australia,  and  the  west  and  south  of  Victoria  now 
lie  within  the  belt  of  westerly  winds,  and  receive  their  rainfall 
from  the  various  cyclonic  disturbances  which  move  across  the 
continent  from  west  to  east. 

As  a  result  of  these  conditions,  the  north  and  east  coasts  ol 
Australia  receive  an  average  annual  rainfall  of  at  least  40  inches. 
This  amount  rapidly  decreases  inland,  both  towards  the  south 
and  the  west  ;  and  over  part  of  the  Great  Plains  and  most  of  the 
Western  Plateau  the  precipitation  does  not  exceed  10  inches  per 
year.  In  the  region  of  winter  rainfall,  the  south-west  corner  of 
Western  Australia  and  part  of  Victoria  have  over  20  inches  ;  but 
elsewhere,  less  than  that  amount  falls. 

Irrigation. — On  considering  these  facts  it  is  obvious  that  a  large 
part  of  the  continent  is  destitute  of  sufficient  supplies  of  moisture  to 
permit  of  its  settlement  ;  and  that  other  parts,  which  receive  in 
years  of  average  rainfall  the  minimum  amount  necessary  for  this 
purpose,  are  in  years  of  low  rainfall  subject  to  great  disaster.  Efforts 
have  therefore  been  made  to  augment,  by  irrigation,  the  water 
supply  of  the  marginal  districts.  The  rivers  offer  no  adequate  means 
of  so  doing.  On  the  north  and  east  coasts  they  are  perennial,  but  in 
the  interior  the  only  one  which  does  not  fail  in  times  of  drought 
is  the  Murray- Darling,  which  is  snow-fed,  and,  although  its  waters 
are  being  utilised,  it  can  never  provide  for  more  than  a  mere  fraction 
of  the  waterless  area.  Another  source  of  supply  from  which  much 
has  been  hoped  lies  in  the  artesian  basin  of  the  Great  Plains.  In 
the  Cretaceous  system  of  that  region  an  important  series  of  rocks 
is  composed  of  marine  clays,  and  is  known  as  the  Rolling  Downs 
formation.  In  the  underlying  sandstones,  great  supplies  of  water 
at  high  pressure  are  prevented  from  reaching  the  surface  by  the 
impermeable  nature  of  the  Rolling  Downs,  but  when  these  are 
bored  through,  as  has  been  done  in  Queensland,  New  South  Wales, 


498  ECONOMIC     GEOGRAPHY 

and  South  Australia,  the  water  rushes  upwards  with  great  force. 
Concerning  the  origin  of  this  water,  there  still  is  much  dispute. 
Professor  Gregory  maintains  "  that  much  of  this  water  is  not 
rain-water  which  has  worked  its  way  downwards  ;  but  it  is  plutonic 
water,  which  has  risen  from  the  deeper  layers  of  the  earth's  crust ; 
and  that  the  water  rushes  up  the  weUs  owing  to  the  tension  of 
its  included  gases  and  the  pressure  of  the  overlying  sheets  of  rocks." 
This  view  is  vigorously  opposed  by  most  Australian  geologists, 
who  hold  that  much  of  the  rain  which  falls  on  the  Queensland  hills 
finds  its  way  to  the  south  coast  of  Australia  by  great  subterranean 
channels,  and  that  it  is  these  channels  which  have  been  tapped 
by  the  artesian  bores.  The  practical  importance  of  the  dispute  is, 
that,  if  the  first  theory  be  true,  the  supply  of  water  is  not  necessarily 
inexhaustible,  while,  if  the  second  be  true,  there  would  seem  to  be  no 
reason  why  steps  should  be  taken  to  conserve  the  outflow.  Un- 
fortunately, owing  to  its  mineralised  character,  the  water  obtained 
from  many  of  the  wells  is  unsuitable  for  the  irrigation  of  crops, 
and  its  chief  use  is  for  the  watering  of  stock,  the  keeping  open  of 
stock  routes  across  the  interior,  wool-scouring,  domestic  purposes, 
and  in  some  cases  the  cultivation  of  lucerne.  On  the  Western 
Plateau,  many  shallow  wells  which  collect  rain-water  have  proved 
of  great  value  to  the  development  of  the  pastoral  industry. 

Vegetation. — ^The  distribution  of  plant  life  follows  that  of  rain- 
fall in  a  marked  degree.  On  the  exposed  slopes  of  Victoria  and 
New  South  Wales  grows  the  temperate  rain  forest,  among  the  most 
important  trees  of  which  are  numerous  species  of  the  genus  Eucalyp- 
tus, including  iron-bark,  black-butt,  and  various  gums.  Over  the 
remainder  of  the  north  and  east  coasts  of  Australia  and  for  a  varying 
distance  inland,  the  prevailing  type  of  vegetation  is  savanna 
forest,  distinguished  alike  by  the  gigantic  eucalypti  of  which  it  is 
composed,  and  by  the  rich  growth  of  grass  between  the  trunks  of 
the  open  wood.  In  the  north  there  are,  in  addition  to  the  eucalypti, 
various  palms,  bamboos,  and  other  trees  belonging  to  a  more  tropical 
cHmate.  Further  inland,  including,  and  extending  beyond,  the  area 
with  a  rainfall  of  ten  to  twenty  inches,  Hes  a  great  grassland  region. 
Here  the  trees  generally  occur  only  as  an  edaphic  formation,  while 
the  grass  is  xerophilous  in  character.  In  some  places  the  grass 
gives  place  to  scrub,  such  as  mallee  and  wattle,  and  in  others  to 
salt-bush,  a  herb  on  which  sheep  manage  to  thrive.     Over  a  great 


AUSTRALIA  499 

part  of  the  remainder  of  Australia,  desert  or  semi-desert  conditions 
prevail.  The  Western  Plateau  is  covered  in  places  with  mulga 
scrub,  but  the  characteristic  vegetation  over  wide  areas  is  spinifex  : 
"  spinifex  in  low  straggling  tussocks,  or  in  high  round  compact 
stools  .  .  everywhere  in  loathsome  profusion  grows  that  most 
useless  and  unattractive  plant."  The  region  of  winter  rains  in 
south-west  Australia  has  an  evergreen  sclerophyllous  forest  in  which 
jarrah  is  an  important  tree,  but  from  there  eastwards  to  the  similar 
forest  in  Victoria  the  south  coast  is  bordered  by  scrubland  except 
on  the  NuUabor  plains  where  savanna  prevails. 

General  Considerations. — ^The  economic  development  of 
Australia  has  been,  and  is  likely  to  be,  controlled  in  a  remarkable 
degree  by  its  _geo^2;aj2hicaJ__20sitii3]i  and  conditions.  The  great 
distance  of  the  continent  from  Europe,  and  from  lands  occupied  by 
people  of  European  stock,  naturally  tended  to  restrict  immigration, 
especially  at  a  time  when  the  fertile  wheat-fields  of  North  America 
offered  superior  advantages  in  virtue  of  their  easy  cultivation  and 
quick  returns.  If  it  had  not  been  for  the  discovery  of  gold,  which 
to  a  certain  extent  acted  as  a  corrective,  the  process  of  occupation 
would  have  been  even  slower  than  was  the  case.  But  the  mineral 
wealth  of  Australia,  besides  attracting  a  considerable  number  of 
people  to  its  shores,  gave  it  a  supply  of  capital  which  was  of  great 
advantage  to  its  development,  when,  on  the  decHne  of  gold  pro- 
duction in  the  eastern  states,  the  inhabitants  began  to  settle  down 
to  agriculture  and  pastoral  farming. 

The  remoteness  of  Australia,  too,  from  the  area  of  European 
conflicts  has  hitherto  kept  it  untouched  by  th^  hand  of  war,  the 
aborigines  never  having  proved  more  than  a  passing  annoyance. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  fact  that  some  of  its  most  fertile  regions, 
lying  well  within  the  tropics,  are  still  practically  unoccupied,  con- 
stitutes a  serious  menace  in  these  days  when  many  people  in  the 
East  are  beginning  to  look  for  new  homes.  The  Australians  are, 
no  doubt,  right  in  attempting  to  make  the  whole  of  their  country 
a  white  man's  land ;  but,  if  they  eventually  find  the  tropical  districts 
incapable  of  close  settlement  by  people  of  their  own  race,  they 
would  do  well  to  consider  the  suggestion  of  Professor  Gregory  that, 
in  such  a  case,  Indian  immigration  might  be  promoted  under  restric- 
tions that  would  confine  it  to  regions  which  would  otherwise  be 
vacant.        Australia,    with    its    comparatively   small    population 


500  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

distributed  along  several  thousand  miles  of  coast,  already  has  a 
strategic  position  sufficiently  weak  without  offering  to  alien  peoples 
the  inducement  of  large  and  fertile  unoccupied  areas. 

Queensland 

Queensland,  with  an  area  of  670,500  square  miles,  ranks  second 
IT]  ^7.ft  among  the  states  of  the  Commonwealth,  but  for  several 
reasons  it  is  Iftss  fylly  developed  than  the  others,  and  its  population 
is  not  quite  one  to  the  square  mile.  Four  distinct  natural  regions 
may  be  recognised :  the  agricultural  coast  lands,  the  mineral 
highlands  {a)  in  the  east,  (b)  in  the  west,  and  the  pastoral  plains. 

The  Western  Highlands  consist  of  an  area  of  old  rocks 
along  the  boundary  between  Queensland  and  the  Northern  Territory, 
where  the  Barklay  Tableland  and  the  surrounding  country  form 
an  eastern  extension  of  the  Western  Plateau.  The  economic 
importance  of  the  country  is  due  mainly  to  its  mineral  resources, 
and  Cloncurry  has  a  considerable  output  of  popper. 

The  Western  Plains  may  be  divided  into  two  parts,  according 
to  the  amount  of  moisture  which  each  receives.  In  the  TT,^T:>-h  the  || 
country,  owing  to  its  heavier  rainfall,  is  more  suitable  for  cattlfi  "' 
than  for  sheep,  and  the  former  are  therefore  much  in  excess  of  the 
latter.  In  the  souiiL  conditions  are  reversed,  and  ^heep-reariug^  is 
the  chief  pastoral  pursuit,  except  in  the  extreme  west  where  cattle 
are  more  numerous,  as  the  distance  from  good  Hues  of  communication 
renders  sheep-farming  unprofitable.  Queenslao^  pijssesses  over 
one-fifth  of  the  Austrahan  flocks,  and  it  is  mainly  in  the  plains  that 
her  share  is  to^  found.  The  whole  of  the  region  lies  within  the 
artesian  basin,  and  over  1,000  wells  have  been  sunk,  but  there  is 
very  httle  agriculture,  and  the  water  is  mostly  used  for  stock. 

The  Eastern  Highlands  are  important  jaiainly  because^  of ^ 
mineral  wealth  which  they  contain.  There  is  a  certain  amount 
of  agriculture  in  the  south,  especially  on  the  western  slope,  where' 
within  recent  years  the  Darling  Downs  have  become  noted  both 
for  arable  and  pastoral  farming.  Wheat  and  other  cereals  are 
grown,  and  large  numbers  of  sheep  are  grazed.  Elsewhere  in  the 
Eastern  Highlands,  the  conditions  of  chmate  and  soil  are  more 
favourable  to  cattle  than  to  sheep. 

The  mineral  output  includes  gold,  copper,  coal,  and  tin.  Metals 
occur  chiefly  in  the  older  rocks,  and  the  most  important  gold-mining 


AUSTRALIA  501 

district  in  Queensland  at  the  present  time  is  in  the  Archaean 
region  in  the  north-east  of  the  state.  Its  centre  is  Charters  Towers^  a 
situated  about  eighty  miles  from  Townsville,  with  which  it  is  con- 
nected  by  rail.  Mount  Morgan,  twenty-six  miles  south-west  of 
Rockhampton,  and  Gympie,  about  sixty  miles  from  Maryborough, 
occupy  the  second  and  third  places  respectively,  and  the  three 
fields  taken  together  account  for  over  80  per  cent,  of  the  gold  output 
of  Queensland.  Copper  is  produced  at  Mount  Morgan,  which  is 
becoming  more  noted  for  that  mineral  than  for  gold,  and  at  Chillagoe, 
between  the  Tate  and  Walsh  rivers.  Tin  is  obtained  in  the  latter 
district,  and  at  Herbert  on  in  the  north. 

Large  deposits  of  coal  are  known  to  exist  in  various  localities, 
but,  as  they  are  generally  at  some  distance  from  the  coast,  and  do 
not  have  the  facilities  for  export  possessed  by  the  fields  of  New 
South  Wales,  their  development  is  comparatively  slow.  The  chief 
mines  worked  at  present  are  those  round  Ipswich,  which  is  twenty- 
three  miles  south-west  of  Brisbane,  and  has  the  advantage  of  being 
connected  with  the  coast  by  the  river  Bremer.  The  coal  is  largely 
used  for  railways,  shipping,  and  manufacturing  industry  in  the 
coast  towns. 

The  Coastal  Plains,  with  which  may  be  included  the  lower 
valleys  of  the  rivers,  have  a  rich  soil  and  a  warm  and  moist  climate, 
and  are  fertile  and  productive.    Though  cattle-raising  and  dairying 

are  pursued  to  some  extent,  agrimJtnrPi  j^^  thp  pHnrip-al  nrmpntinn 

of  the  people.  Maize,  the  most  important  cereal  of  Queensland,  is 
grown  in  the  south.  Further  noith,  and  more  especially  in  the 
country  round  Mackay,  su^ar-cane  is  extensively  cultivated. 
Formerly,  the  plantations  were  worked  mainly  by  Kanakas,  but,  in 
pursuance  of  the  "  White  Australia  '*  poHcy,  they  are  being  dispensed 
with,  and,  in  1910-11,  over  90  per  cent,  of  the  sugar  crop  of  Queens- 
land was  produced  by  white  labour.  As  the  output  of  sugar  has 
greatly  increased  since  the  change  was  inaugurated,  it  may  reason- 
ably be  claimed  to  have  been  a  success.  Whether  or  not  the 
tropical  cHmate  will  permit  the  growth  of  a  white  agricultural 
population,  not  constantly  recruited  from  temperate  regions,  is  a 
more  debatable  matter,  and  the  attempts  in  this  direction  must 
still  be  regarded  as  being  in  the  nature  of  an  experiment. 

The  cultivation  of  cotton  has  been  attempted,  but,  although  soil 
and  climate  seem  favourable,  the  results  so  far  have  not  been 


502  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

satisfactory.  It  is  probable  that  the  want  of  a  supply  of  cheap 
labour  is  the  chief  cause  of  failure,  and  whether  the  difficulty  can  be 
overcome  still  remains  to  be  seen.  Coffee  and  tobacco  are  both 
grown,  but  in  each  case  the  production  is  less  than  it  was  several 
years  ago.  jruit-growiag  is  more  prosperous,  and  bananas,  oranges, 
pineapples,  mangoes,  and  plums  are  all  raised. 

Towns  and  Communications. — ^The  towns  of  the  roa<;tjl  plain 
are  situated,  either  on  the  coast,  or  on  navigable  rivers  ;  and  their 
main  function  is  to  act  as  collecting  and  distributing  cejritres,  though 
in  some  cases  they  prepare  raw  material  for  export.  Brisbane, 
the  capital,  is  situated  in  the  more  temperate  south,  on  the  Brisbane 
river,  twenty-five  miles  from  Moreton  Bay  and  at  the  head  of 
navigation  for  large  vessels.  It  is  connected  with  the  interior  by 
a  railway  which  runs  through  Toowoomba  (where  it  joins  a  line 
from  Sydney)  to  Charleville  and  Cunnamulla.  Thus  it  taps  some 
of  the  trade  of  the  Darling  Downs  (though  much  of  this  goes  by 
Sydney),  and  of  the  great  pastoral  districts  beyond.  It  also 
receives  the  products  of  the  coastal  plain  by  a  line  which  runs 
northward,  through  the  mining  town  of  Gympie,  to  Rockhampton. 
The  latter  is  situated  on  the  navigable  Fitzroy  river,  forty-three 
miles  from  its  mouth,  and,  besides  being  the  port  for  a  rich  agricultu- 
ral area  along  the  coast,  and  the  outlet  of  the  Mount  Morgan  mining 
district,  is  connected  by  rail  with  the  pastoral  regions  of  central 
Queensland.  Mackay  is  the  centre  and  port  of  the  chief  sugar- 
producing  district.  Townsville  is  connected  by  rail  with  the  mining 
areas  of  Charters  Towers  and  Cloncurry,  and  serves  as  a  port  for  a 
considerable  part  of  northern  Queensland.  Cairns  is  surrounded 
by  sugar  plantations  and  orchards,  and  is  connected  by  rail  with 
Herberton. 

New  South  Wales 

The  main  physical  regions  of  Queensland — coastal  plains,  high- 
lands, and  western  plains — are  continued  in  New  South  Wales. 
The  coastal  plain,  indeed,  is  more  fully  developed  there  than  in 
any  other  part  of  the  east  coast,  and  has,  as  a  rule,  a  breadth  of 
35  to  45  miles.  The  Eastern  Highlands  continue  to  present  their 
steep  escarpment  to  the  Pacific,  and  for  some  purposes  a  distinction 
may  be  drawn  between  the  tableland  itself  and  the  long  gentle 
slope  to  the  west.  The  Western  Plains  consist  in  the  north  of  the 
RoUing  Downs  formation,  and  in  the  south  of  Tertiary  silts  deposited 


AUSTRALIA  503 

by  the  Murray  and  Murrumbidgee,  while  a  large  area  of  lower 
Palaeozoic  rock  lies  between  the  DarHng  and  the  Bogan.  In  the 
extreme  west  a  small  region  of  Archaean  rocks,  including  the  Barrier 
range,  falls  within  the  state  and  may  be  treated  separately. 

The  Western  Archaean  Region  contains  in  the  Broken  Hills 
one  of  the  most  important  silver-lead  mines  in  the  world.  Silver,, 
lead,  and  zinc  are  all  obtained,  and  the  annual  output  of  the  whole 
region  is  valued  at  over  £2,400,000.  The  state  of  New  South  Wales 
derives  comparatively  little  benefit  from  the  exploitation  of  these 
mines,  as  they  lie  far  from  its  coasts  and  are  worked  from  Adelaide, 
with  which  they  are  connected  by  rail. 

The  Western  Plains  really  consist  of  two  distinct  regions. 
In  the  western  two-thirds,  the  rainfall  as  a  rule  does  not  exceed  15 
inches,  while  in  the  eastern  third  it  is  generally  above  that  amount. 
The  difference  between  the  two  districts  is  indicated  fairly  well 
by  the  amount  of  stock  carried  by  each  at  the  present  time.  In 
the  western  division,  there  is  one  sheep  to  eleven  acres,  and  in 
the  eastern,  one  sheep  to  two-and-a-half  acres.  In  the  western 
division,  again,  only  an  insignificant  part  of  the  land  is  under  agri- 
culture, while  in  the  extreme  east  arable  farming  has  made  rapid 
progress,  more  especially  in  the  Riverina  (the  district  between  the 
Murray  and  the  Murrumbidgee),  where  the  Tertiary  soils  are  par- 
ticularly fertile  and  the  rainfall  adequate.  The  eastern  region,  as 
a  whole,  contains  one-third  of  the  sheep  of  New  South  Wales,  and 
two-fifths  of  its  wheatfields.  Minerals  are  found  in  those  areas 
where  the  lower  Palaeozoic  rocks  occur.  The  centre  of  the  mining 
industry  is  the  district  round  Cobar,  which  contains  the  most 
important  gold_and  copper  fields  at  present  worked  in  the  state. 
Gold  is  also  found  at  Wyalong,  further  to  the  south-east. 

The  Eastern  Highlands  include  two  different  agricultural 
regions — ^the  tableland  and  the  western  slope.  The  latter  is  the 
more  productive  and  contains  over  one-half  of  the  wheat  acreage 
of  the  whole  state,  while  barley  is  extensively  grown  in  the  northern 
districts.  On  the  tableland,  wheat,  oats,  and  potatoes  are  the 
chief  crops,  but  the  area  under  cultivation  is  much  less  than  on  the 
western  slope.  The  highlands,  as  a  whole,  are  extensively  used 
for  grazing  purposes,  and  nearly  one-half  of  the  sheep,  and  over 
one-half  the  cattle,  of  New  South  Wales  are  fed  upon  its  pastures. 
The  more  favourable  cUmatic  conditions  of  this  region,  as  compared 


504  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

with  those  further  west,  are  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  land  can 
support  one  sheep  on  an  acre  and  a  half. 

Deposits  of  the  precious  metals  are  widespread.  Gold  is  found  in 
various  places,  copper  in  the  north  and  in  the  south,  and  tin  in 
the  north.  Iron  ore  occurs  in  the  Blue  Mountains  and  elsewhere, 
but  the  output  is  as  yet  small,  although  the  proximity  of  the  western 
coalfield,  the  chief  mines  of  which  are  also  in  the  Blue  Mountains, 
has  made  possible  a  certain  amount  of  iron  smelting  at  Lithgow 
and  other  towns. 

The  Coastal  Region,  with  its  fertile  soil,  favourable  cUmate, 
great  coal  resources,  valuable  hinterland,  and  facilities  for  commerce, 
is  one  of  the  most  important  on  the  whole  continent.  The  area  under 
crops  is  not  very  great.  Suggxicane  is  cultivated  in  the  valleys  of 
the  northern  rivers,  but  the  amount  of  sugar  produced  is  much 
less  than  in  Queensland,  and  is  steadily  decreasing.  Maize  is  also 
grown,  more  especially  in  the  south,  where  it  surpasses  wheat  in 
importance.  The  district  is  more  suited  to  cattle  than  to  sheep, 
and  an  important  dairying  industry  has  sprung  up  within  recent 
years.  The  mineral  wealth  of  the  region  consists  chiefly  of  coal, 
and  two  important  coalfields  lie  within  it.  The  northern,  or  Hiinl^r 
River  district,  of  which  Newcastle  is  the  centre,  produces  about 
66  per  cent,  of  the  total  output  of  the  state.  The  coal  is  of  good 
quality,  and  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  exported  from  Newcastle 
makes  the  field  of  special  value.  The  Illawarra  field,  some  distance 
south  of  %dagy,  has  an  output  of  about  one-third  that  of  the 
northern,  but,  as  the  coal  from  it  is  much  in  demand  for  steam 
purposes,  it  has  made  considerable  progress  within  recent  years, 
and  a  harbour  has  been  built  at  Port  Kemble  to  facilitate  export. 

Towns  and  Communications. — Sydney,  with  its  magnificent 
harbour,  is  the  largest  town  and  chjs£_^rt  of  New  South  Wales, 
and  may  also  be  regarded  as  the  centre  of  its  rail\szay^^stfijn.  From 
it,  a  line  runs  along  the  coastal  plain  to  Newcastle,  and  is  continued 
by  way  of  the  northern  tableland  to  the  Queensland  frontier, 
where  it  joins  the  line  to  Brisbane  ;  while  a  branch  breaks  off  and 
connects  with  several  points  on  the  Barwon  river,  thus  serving  the 
agricultural  areas  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  plains.  On  the 
south,  Sydney  is  connected  with  the  Victorian  railway  system  at 
Albury,  on  the  Murray,  by  a  line  which  crosses  the  tableland  and  runs 
along  the  south-western  slope  of  the  highlands.     From  this  line  there 


AUSTRALIA  505 

breaks  off  at  Goulburn,  the  centre  of  an  agricultural  district  on  the 
southern  tableland,  another  which  runs  southward  by  Quean- 
beyan  to  Nimmitabel,  and  serves  the  agricultural  and  mining 
districts,  of  which  these  are  the  chief  towns.  Other  branches  go  to 
Wyalong,  engaged  in  gold  mining,  and  to  Hay,  in  the  pastoral  section 
of  the  Riverina.  From  Sydney,  a  railway  runs  by  Bathurst,  formerly 
a  mining  but  now  an  agricultural  centre  on  the  tableland,  to  Bourke, 
on  the  DarHng,  in  the  midst  of  a  great  pastoral  region.  Branches 
from  this  Hne  go  to  the  mining  town  of  Cobar  and  various  agricultural 
towns  in  the  east  central  part  of  the  great  plains.  The  Murray, 
DarUng,  and  Murrumbidgee,  all  afford  navigable  waterways,  the 
only  ones  in  Australia. 

Victoria 

Victoria,  with  an  area  of  almost  88,000  square  miles,  is  the  fifth 
in  size  among  the  states  of  the  Commonwealth.  It  falls  into 
several  distinct  physical  regions.  The  highlands  run  from  east  to 
west,  being  much  broader  in  the  east  than  in  the  west,  and  are 
generally  built  up  of  Archaean  and  primary  rocks.  To  the  north 
the  land  slopes  down  to  the  Great  Plains,  overlain  by  silt  deposited 
in  Tertiary  times ;  and  in  the  south  to  the  Great  Valley,  covered 
by  volcanic  material  in  the  west  and  by  Tertiary  soils  in  the  east. 
Beyond  the  valley  lie  the  Otway  and  Gippsland  Hills,  formed  of 
Jurassic  rocks,  but  of  no  great  height  or  extent. 

The  distribution  of  moisture  throughout  the  state  is  very  irregular. 
In  the  highlands,  and  on  the  upper  slopes  of  the  Otway  and  Gippsland 
Hills,  the  mean  annual  rainfall  is  generally  over  40,  and  in  some 
places  over  50  inches,  while  in  the  Great  Valley  it  does  not  exceed 
30  inches.  On  the  plains,  it  has  a  range  of  from  10  to  20 
inches,  being  as  a  rule  over  15  inches,  except  in  the  Mallee 
country  of  the  north-west,  where  it  is  below  the  latter  amount. 
It  ought  to  be  noted,  however,  that  the  actual  precipitation  varies 
considerably  from  one  year  to  another,  and  that,  in  districts  where 
the  average  rainfall  is  just  sufficient  for  successful  cultivation, 
any  reduction  from  it  may  entail  disastrous  consequences. 

Physical  and  climatic  conditions  determine  four  main  natural 
regions  :  the  Great  Plains,  the  Highlands,  the  Great  Valley,  and 
the  Otway  and  Gippsland  Hills. 

The  Great  Plains  form  an  important  agricultural  and  pastoral 
area,  and  contain,    notwithstanding    their  unfavourable   cUmatic 


506  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

conditions,  three-fourths  of  the  cultivated  land  of  Victoria.  Wheat 
is  the  chiefcrop  raised,  and  nine-tenths  of  the  total  wheat  pro- 
duction of  the  state  is  from  the  Wimmera,  Mallee,  and  Northern 
districts  of  the  Great  Plains.  The  yield  per  acre  is  low,  and  in 
the  Mallee  frequently  falls  below  six  bushels.  Recently,  the  practice 
of  allowing  the  wheat  lands  to  He  fallow  in  alternate  years  has 
been  more  generally  adopted,  and  with  beneficial  results,  the  5deld 
per  acre  on  fallowed  land  being  at  least  twice  as  great  as  that  on 
unfallowed. 

Pastoral  pursuits  are  also  extensively  followed,  and  over  one- 
third  of  the  sheep  in  Victoria  are  in  the  region  under  consideration. 
These  are  generally  found  in  the  north  and  west  of  the  plains, 
the  Mallee  country  being  as  a  rule  unsuitable.  Cattle  are  also 
reared  in  the  north.  The  stock  equivalent  varies  from  one  sheep 
to  one  and  a  third  acres  in  the  northern  districts  to  one  sheep  to 
five  acres  in  the  Mallee. 

Victoria  Ues  outside  of  the  artesian  basin  proper,  but  sufficiem 
water  for  stock  and  domestic  purposes  is  usually  found  in  ihi 
plains  at  shallow  depths.  In  addition,  irrigation  works  have  beei 
constructed,  especially  in  the  north,  where  water  can  be  obtainec 
from  the  Murray  and  its  tributaries — ^the  Goulburn  and  the  Loddon 
Among  the  most  important  of  these  irrigation  settlements  are  th( 
districts  round  Rodney  and  Echuca,  watered  by  the  Goulburn 
Tragowel  Plains,  watered  by  the  Loddon  ;  and  the  lands  abou" 
Kow  Swamp,  Cohuna,  and  Mildura,  watered  by  the  Murray.  Mil 
dura,  in  the  north  of  the  Mallee,  has  become  an  important  fruit 
p5odiicicg_rggion,  and  exports  considerable  quantities  of  r^nj 
and  tinned  fruits.  In  all,  about  a  quarter  of  a  million  acrej 
can  now  be  cultivated  by  means  of  irrigation  in  the  Grea; 
Plains. 

The  Highlands  are  as  a  rule  unsuited  for  cultivation  except  ii 
the  river  valleys,  and  pastoral  rather  than  arable  farming  prevails 
On  the  south pgi  slopes  there  are  vast  supplies  of  timber  which  hav 
as  yet  been  exploited  only  to  a  limited  extent.  Mimng  is  the  mail 
industry  of  the  region,  and  gold,  the  most  important  product,  i 
found  both  in  alluvial  deposits  and  in  quartz  veins,  the  latte 
being  the  chief  source  of  supply.  Bendigo,  Ballarat,  and  Beech 
worth  are  the  centres  of  the  gold-producing  districts,  but  the  outpu 
has  declined  within  recent  years. 


AUSTRALIA  507 

The  Otway  and  Gippsland  Hills  lie  to  the  south  of  the  Great 
Valley.  As  a  result  of  the  heavy  rainfall  the  slopes  are  covered 
with  timber.  In  the  Jurassic  rocks  of  the  Gippsland  Hills 
the  chief  coal  deposits  of  the  state  are  found ;  but  the  amount 
produced  is  not  large,  and  considerable  quantities  have  to  be 
imported. 

The  Great  Valley  is  primarily  a  pastoral  and  dairying  country, 
and  contains  nearly  one-half  of  the  totalnumber~ot  cattle  and 
sheep  in  the  whole  state.  The  western  district,  which  consists 
largely  of  soils  of  volcanic  origin,  is  in  many  places  fertile  and  covered 
with  rich  grass.  Formerly,  it  was  almost  entirely  devoted  to  the 
raising  of  sheep,  and  it  still  contains  over  one-third  of  those  in 
Victoria,  although  large  areas  have  recently  been  diverted  to 
arable  farming  and  dairying.  The  rainfall  is  heavier  than  on  the 
Great  Plains,  and  the  stock  equivalent  is  over  one  sheep  to  the 
acre.  The  central  district  has  good  soil  and  is  well  watered.  Its 
position,  round  the  most  densely  populated  part  of  the  state,  has 
made  it  important  for  the  cultivation  of  orchard  and  garden  pro- 
duce, and  dairying  is  also  carried  on.  The  eastern  district  is 
in  a  much  less  developed  condition,  and  stock-raising  is  the  chief 
occupation  of  its  inhabitants,  though  vigorous  attempts  are  being 
made  to  revive  and  extend  the  cultivation  of  sugar-beet  in  the 
country  round  Maffra. 

Having  access  to  the  sea  on  the  one  hand,  and  lying  between  it 
and  the  interior  regions  on  the  other,  the  Great  Valley  contains 
the  ports  through  which  the  trade  of  Victoria  passes.  Of  these  the 
first  is  Melbourne,  the  second^  largest  city  in  Australia,  occupying 
a  central  position  on  the  Yarra-Yarra  a  few  miles  above  the  point 
at  which  it  enters  Port  Phillip.  To  it  ships  drawing  twenty-two 
feet  of  water  can  now  rnake  their  way,  but  larger  boats  do  not  go 
beyond  Williamstown  or  Port  Melbourne  at  the  mouth  of  the  river. 
Geelong,  on  a  western  extension  of  Port  Phillip,  is  the  port  of  the 
western  district,  and  is  noted  for  its  manufactures  of  woollen 
goods.  Among  minor  ports  are  Portland  and  Belfast  in  the  west, 
and  Cunninghame  in  the  east. 

Railways. — As  Melbourne  is  the  chief  outlet  of  the  state,  the  more 
important  lines  of  communication  naturally  converge  upon  it.  In 
the  south-east,  the  eastern  district  of  the  Great  Valley  and  the  coal 
mines  of  Gippsland  are  connected  with  the  capital   by  the  South 

32— (1326) 


508  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

Eastern  Railway.  The  North-Eastern  runs  north  and  north-east  to 
Albury  on  the  frontier  of  New  South  Wales,  where  it  connects  with 
the  line  for  Sydney,  but  unfortunately  the  two  systems  are  not  on  the 
same  gauge.  Branches  from  the  North-Eastern  line  reach  the  Murray 
at  Yarrawonga,  Echuca,  and  elsewhere.  The  Northern  Railway  runs 
north-east  to  Bendigo,  from  which  point  lines  diverge  to  Echuca, 
Swan  Hill,  and  other  points  on  the  Murray.  It  is  through  those 
river  ports  of  the  Murray,  from  Yarrawonga  downwards,  that  most 
of  the  trade  of  the  Western  Riverina  passes,  as  that  district  is 
nearer  to  Melbourne  than  to  Sydney.  The  North- Western  line 
goes  by  Ballarat  (where  a  branch  diverges  to  Mildura)  to  Serviceton 
on  the  frontier  of  South  Australia,  where  it  connects  with  the  rail- 
way for  Adelaide.  The  ports  in  the  south-west  are  connected  by 
a  line  which  runs  from  Melbourne  by  Geelong  to  Portland. 

South  Australia  and  Northern  Territory 

South  Australia,  along  with  Northern  Territory  now  administered 
by  the  Commonwealth  Government,  extends  across  the  continent 
from  south  to  north.  Three  great  climatic  regions  may  be  recog- 
nised :  the  temperate  south,  the  arid  interior,  and  the  tropical 
north,  and  these  may  be  taken  as  a  basis  for  the  further  division 
of  the  country  into  natural  regions. 

The  temperate  south,  which  contains  nearly  the  whole  population, 
falls  into  several  distinct  physical  regions  :  the  lower  part  of  the 
Murray  Basin,  the  South  Australian  Highlands,  the  Great  Valley, 
and  the  Western  Plateau.  Over  the  whole  area  the  rainfall  is 
generally  from  10  to  20  inches,  except  in  the  highlands  and  in  the 
extreme  south-east,  where  it  is  as  a  rule  between  20  and 
30  inches. 

The  Murray  Basin,  with  its  low  rainfall,  is  mainly  devoted  to 
pa.§ipiaLiaimirig,  and  about  one-fourth  of  the  sheep  of  South 
Australia  are  raised  within  it.  Dairy  farming  is  carried  on,  more 
especially  in  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  region,  where  the  rainfall 
is  heavier,  and  the  volcanic  soils  around  Mount  Gambler  more 
fertile.  At  the  present  time,  the  land  supports  on  an  average  the 
equivalent  of  one  sheep  to  three  acres,  but  this  varies  from  place 
to  place  according  to  local  conditions.  Near  Mount  Gambler  is 
the  chief  ipoiaiQ=gnmmg  district  in  the  state,  and  large  quantities 
of  barley  and  oats_are  also  raised.     An  irrigation  colony  has  been 


J 


AUSTRALIA  509 

established  at  Renmark,  at  an  elbow  of  the  Murray  about  fifty 
miles  below  the  point  at  which  it  enters  the  state,  and  here  are  grown 
the  vines  from  which  sultana  raisins  and  Zante  currants  are  obtained, 
while  apricots,  oranges,  and  various  other  jruits  also  flourish.  It 
is  probable  that  the  future  will  see  a  considerable  development  of 
irrigation  works  in  this  region. 

The  Highlands  are  built  up  of  lower  Palaeozoic  rocks,  and  form 
a  plateau  rather  than  a  mountain  system.  In  many  places  the 
soil  is  fertile,  and  the  rainfall  is  sufficient  for  the  cultivation  of 
cereals.  Probably  two-thirds,  at  least,  of  the  wheat  crop  of  South 
Australia  is  grown  in  this  region,  which  also  contains  numerous 
areas  suitable  for  the  cultivation  of  fruit.  Sheep  and  cattle  are 
reared  in  large  numbers.  In  the  highlands,  too,  are  situated  the 
Kapunda  and  Burra-Burra  copper  districts,  formerly  the  most 
productive  in  the  state,  but  now  lying  idle.  Gold  is  worked  in 
various  places,  chiefly  in  the  north,  and  considerable  deposits  of 
silverjead_are  known  to  exist.  In  the  Archaean  rocks  of  Yorke 
Peninsula,  which  may  be  considered  as  an  outlying  part  of  the 
Highland  region,  are  the  rich  copper  mines  and  important  smelting 
works  of  Wallaroo  and  Moonta. 

The  Great  Valley,  which  consists  of  Spencer  and  St.  Vincent 
Gulfs,  the  coastal  plains  lying  about  these,  and  the  swampy  country 
of  Lake  Torrens,  varies  greatly  from  one  part  to  another.  In  the 
south  it  contains  fertile  fields  about  Adelaide  and  Gawler  ;  further 
north  much  of  it  is  suitable  only  for  pastoral  purposes ;  while  in 
the  vicinity  of  Lake  Torrens  the  land  is  generally  useless.  The 
Great  Valley  naturally  contains  the  chief  outlets  of  the  state.  Of 
these  the  most  important  are  Port  Adelaide,  the  port  of  the  capital 
and  of  much  of  the  agricultural  region ;  Port  Pirie,  which  smelts 
and  exports  the  products  of  the  Broken  Hill  mining  district  of 
New  South  Wales ;  and  Port  Augusta,  which  serves  the  northern 
part  of  South  Australia. 

The  Western  Plateau — Eyre  Peninsula. — In  the  coastal 
districts  considerable  development  has  taken  place  within  recent 
years.  The  cultivation  of  Ayhea,t_  is  rapidly  extending,  and  about 
one-sixth  of  the  wheat  acreage  of  the  state  lies  within  the  region. 
The  scanty  rainfall,  however,  results  in  a  low  yield,  and  the  average 
for  the  last  five  years  does  not  amount  to  six  bushels  per  acre. 
Pastoral  farms  are  also  increasing  in  number,  and  on  the  occupied 


510  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

lands  the  stock  equivalent  at  the  present  time  is  about  one  sheep 
to  nine  acres. 

The  Arid  Interior  can  onlyjbe  developed  to  a  slight  extent. 
Part  of  the  region  lies  within  the  artesian  basin,  and  there  a  certain 
amount  of  ppc^tnral  farming  is  carried  on  with  the  aid  of  irrigation, 
iiold  is  found  in  the  Arltunga  district,  situated  among  the  ancient 
rocks  of  the  plateau  crossed  by  the  Macdonnell  ranges.  Further 
north,  there  are  stretches  of  grassland  which  may  yet  be  utilised. 
A  trans-continental  line  would  do  much  for  the  development  of 
this  region  ;  at  present  the  railway  does  not  go  beyond  Oodnadatta, 
from  which  point  camel  transport  is  necessary. 

The  Tropical  and  Humid  North  may  be  defined  as  that  part 
of  the  Northern  Territory  which  has  a  mean  annual  rainfall  of 
over  20  inches.  Two  regions  may  be  distinguished :  the  plateau 
and  the  coastal  plain.  On  the  first  of  these,  savanna  and,  in 
the  north,  savanna  forest  prevail,  and  much  land  is  suitable  for 
cattle-raising.  Minerals,  including  £old  and  ,tin,  are  found  in 
various  districts.  On  the  coastal  plain,  which  has  a  width  of 
from  30  to  100  miles  and  a  rainfall  in  places  of  60  inches,  sisal 
hemp,  rice,  and  arrowroot  are  grown.  Both  soil  and  climate  are 
believed  to  be  adapted  to  the  growth  of  cotton,  but  the  same 
difficulties  as  in  Queensland  prevent  its  cultivation. 

Cattle-raising  and  mining  are  the  leading  industries  of  these 
regions,  which  are  as  yet  in  an  extremely  undeveloped  condition, 
and  only  contain  about  3,000  inhabitants,  two-thirds  of  whom 
are  Chinese.  The  chief  town  is  Palmerston,  on  Port  Darwin,  one 
of  the  best  harbours  in  Australia. 

Communications. — ^Adelaide  may  be  regarded  as  the  railway 
centre  of  South  Australia.  One  line  runs  eastward  from  the  capital 
across  the  highlands,  and  south-eastwards  across  the  plains  of  the 
Murray  Basin  to  Serviceton,  where  it  connects  with  the  Victorian 
railway  system  and  sends  off  a  branch  to  Mount  Gambler.  Another 
line  going  northwards  from  Adelaide  has  connections  with  Morgan, 
at  the  great  bend  of  the  Murray,  Wallaroo,  Port  Pirie,  Broken  Hill, 
and  Port  Augusta,  and  finally  comes  to  an  end  at  Oodnadatta, 
north-west  of  Lake  Eyre.  In  the  Northern  Territory,  a  railway 
runs  from  Port  Darwin  south-eastward  to  Pine  Creek,  distant  over 
1,000  miles  from  Oodnadatta,  with  which  it  is  proposed  to 
connect  it. 


australia  511 

Western  Australia 

Western  Australia,  sometimes  called  Westralia,  contains  one- 
third  of  the  area  of  the  whole  Commonwealth,  and  is  the  largest 
of  the  states  of  which  it  is  composed.  The  country  consists  in  the 
main  of  a  plateau  of  Archaean  rock,  varying  from  1,000  to  2,000 
feet  in  height.  In  the  west  there  is  a  coastal  plain  built  up  of 
Carboniferous,  Jurassic,  and  Tertiary  deposits ;  in  the  north-east  are 
wide  areas  of  lower  Palaeozoic  age ;  and  in  the  south  the  greater  part 
of  the  Nullabor  limestone  plains.  Two  natural  regions  are  marked 
off  by  climatic  conditions,  the  south-western  and  the  northern,  in 
each  of  which  there  is  a  mean  annual  rainfall  of  over  20  inches. 
The  remainder  of  the  state  is  less  easy  to  divide  as  its  conditions 
and  potentialities  are  as  yet  imperfectly  known.  To  the  east  of 
long.  122°  or  123°  E.,  however,  much  of  the  land  is  desert,  while  to 
the  west  are  considerable  areas  of  savanna  and  scrub  capable 
of  a  certain  amount  of  development.  In  the  latter  region  also 
are  situated  all  the  gold-producing  districts  which  have  as  yet 
been  discovered. 

The  Eastern  Desert,  which  also  contains  scrub-land  in  places, 
is  inhabited  only  by  a  few  aborigines,  and  the  scarcit^^"  of  water 
is  so  great  that  its  future  development  is  unlikely  unless  rich  mineral 
areas  are  discovered  within  it. 

The  Western  Savanna  and  Scrub-land  Region  has  made 
considerable  progress  in  recent  years,  mainly  as  a  result  of  the 
exploitation  of  its  iQineral  wealth.  This  occurs  in  two  auriferous 
belts,  one  of  which  starts  from  Phillips  River  on  the  south  coast, 
and  runs,  with  a  breadth  of  over  100  miles,  in  a  north  and  north- 
westerly direction,  almost  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ashburton ;  while  the 
other,  the  breadth  of  which  is  still  unknown,  lies  about  100  miles 
further  west,  and  runs  in  a  similar  direction  to  the  first  from  the 
Dundas  Hills  in  the  south  to  Pilbara  on  the  north-west  coast. 
Of  these  two  belts  the  richer  and  more  productive  is  the  second, 
which  contains  the  East  Coolgardie,  Mount  Margaret,  and  East 
Murchison  goldfields.  From  the  district  round  Kalgoorhe,  on  the 
first  of  these  fields,  is  obtained  more  than  half  of  the  annual  output 
of  gold  in  the  state,  and  from  it  has  come  more  than  half  the 
total  amount  produced  in  Westraha.  The  annual  output, 
which  for  the  years  1901-6  averaged  over  ;f8,000,000,  has  lately 
fallen  below  £6,000,000,  and,  unless  further  discoveries  are  reported. 


512  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

it  would  appear  that  the  best  days  of  Westrahan  gold_mining 
are^past  Co^ger^is  found  along  with  gold,  more  especially  on 
the  Phillips  River,  Mount  Margaret,  and  West  Pilbara  fields,  while 
tin  occurs  in  the  Marble  Bar  district  of  Pilbara. 

The  arid  climate  renders  the  land  unsuitable  for  cultivation,  but 
there  has  recently  been  a  considerable  extension  of  the  pastoral 
area.  This  is  in  part  due  to  the  discovery  that,  underlying  the 
sands  and  silts  which  have  accumulated  over  the  Archaean  rocks, 
a  sufficient  supply  of  water  may  be  obtained  for  stock  and  domestic 
purposes.  Over  one-half  of  the  sheep  in  the  state  are  now  grazed 
in  this  region,  the  more  favourable  districts  of  which,  on  the  west  and 
north-west  coasts,  have  a  stock  equivalent  of  one  sheep  to  two  acres 
The  limestone  region  of  the  Nullabor  Plains  contains  large  areas 
of  pasture  land  suitable  for  sheep,  but  it  is  practically  uninhabited 
with  the  exception  of  a  narrow  strip  along  the  coast  where  water 
can  easily  be  obtained. 

The  Northern  Districts  have  a  heavier  rainfall  than  the' 
previous  regions,  and  are  on  the  whole  more  suited  to  cattle  than 
to  sheep.  Hence  it  is  that  over  60  per  cent,  of  the  cattle  of  West- 
ralia,  but  only  6  per  cent,  of  its  sheep  are  raised  there.  Arable 
farming  is  as  yet  of  no  importance.  A  little  gold  is  obtained  in 
places. 

The  South-West  Region  is  agriculturally  the  most  valuable 
in  the  state,  and  contains  practically  the  whole  of  its  cultivatec 
land.  Wheat  is  the  staple  crop,  but  other  cereals  are  also  grown, 
The  pastoral  industry  is  important,  and  over  two-fifths  of  th< 
sheep  in  the  state,  and  most  of  the  cattle  kept  for  dairy  purposes,  an 
in  this  region.  Timber  is  a  source  of  considerable  wealth,  and  the 
chief  trees  include  the  jarrah,  the  kauri,  and  the  white  gum.  The 
most  important  minerals  are  coal,  which  is  found  at  Collie,  in  a 
shallow  basin  on  the  Archaean  plateau,  and  tin,  obtained  mainly  fron 
alluvial  deposits  at  Greenbushes,  some  distance  further  south. 

Towns  and  Communications. — ^The  capital  of  the  state  is  Perth, 
which  is  situated  on  the  Swan  River,  about  twelve  miles  from  its 
mouth  at  Fremantle,  the  leading  port  of  Western  Austraha.  From 
Perth,  the  Great  Southern  railway  runs  to  Albany,  the  port  of  the 
south  coast ;  while  the  South- Western  railway  connects  the  capita 
with  the  mining  districts  of  Collie  and  Greenbushes,  and  with  then 
port  at  Bunbury.  The  Eastern  railway  runs  from  Perth  to  Kalgoorhe 


AUSTRALIA  513 

with  one  branch  southwards  to  Norseman,  in  the  Dundas  mining 
district,  and  another  northwards  to  La  vert  on,  on  the  Mount 
Margaret  goldfields.  It  has  been  proposed  to  connect  Norseman 
with  Port  Augusta  in  South  Austraha  by  a  great  Hne  running  along 
the  south  coast.  Geraldton,  the  port  of  the  Murchison  goldfields, 
is  connected  with  them  by  the  Northern  railway,  and  with  Perth 
by  the  Midland.  Broome,  on  Roebuck  Bay,  is  the  chief  port  on  the 
north-west  coast. 

Tasmania 
Tasmania,  an  island  lying  to  the  south  of  Victoria,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  Bass  Strait,  is  the  smallest  of  the  Australian 
states.  It  consists  in  part  of  a  much  dissected  plateau,  the  average 
height  of  which  is  about  3,500  feet,  though  in  places  it  rises  to  over 
5,000  feet ;  and  in  part  of  plains  which  surround  the  plateau  and 
are  broken  up  by  numerous  mountain  ranges.  The  whole  of  the 
west  and  north-west  of  the  island  consists  of  lower  Palaeozoic  rocks, 
through  which  various  eruptive  masses  have  in  later  times  made 
their  way  and  frequently  weathered  down  into  fertile  soil.  In 
the  east  and  south-east  Carboniferous  rocks  prevail. 

Tasmania,  lying  further  to  the  south  than  the  continent  to  which 
it  belongs,  is  exposed  to  the  full  force  of  the  westerly  winds.  The 
west  coast  and  the  plateau,  accordingly,  have  a  heavy  rainfall, 
which  varies  from  40  to  60  inches  and  even  more  ;  while  in 
the  more  sheltered  eastern  part  of  the  island  the  precipitation  does 
not,  as  a  rule,  exceed  30  inches,  except  along  the  coast,  where 
it  is  somewhat  greater.  In  the  wetter  districts  the  land  is  covered 
with  warm  temperate  rain-forest,  but  in  the  drier  parts  vegetation 
is  of  the  savanna  type. 

Agriculture,  pastoral  farming,  and  mining  are  the  chief  occupa- 
tions of  the  inhabitants.  The  most  important  agricultural  areas 
lie,  either  immediately  to  the  east  of  the  plateau,  or  in  the  north- 
west, the  former  being  more  important  for  wheat,  and  the  latter 
for  oats.  Fruit-growing  is  carried  on  mainly  in  the  south  and  south- 
east. Sheep  are  pastured  on  the  drier  lands  of  the  eastern  half  of 
the  island,  more  especially  in  the  midlands,  while  cattle  are  reared 
in  all  the  settled  districts. 

Mining  operations  are  carried  on  principally  in  the  west. 
Copper  is  obtained  at  Mount  Lyell,  north  of  Macquarie  Harbour,  and 
elsewhere ;    silver-lead  ores  at  Zeehan,  Dundas,  and  other  places 


514  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

north  of  Mount  Lyell  ;  and  tin  at  Mount  Bischoff  in  the  north- 
west. The  chief  coal  deposits  are  found  in  the  Carboniferous  region 
in  the  east,  the  most  productive  area  at  the  present  time  being 
around  Fingal,  in  the  valley  of  the  South  Esk. 

The  two  largest  towns  are  Hobart,  the  capital,  on  the  Derwent, 
twelve  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  Launceston,  the  chief  commercial 
centre,  on  the  Tamar,  not  far  from  the  head  of  its  estuary.  These 
towns  are  connected  by  rail  with  one  another,  and  with  the  coal- 
fields of  the  east  and  the  mineral  districts  of  the  west  and 
north-west. 

Commerce. — ^The  overseas  trade  of  Australia,  which  is  of  growing 
importance,  is  mainly,  though  not  to  the  same  extent  as  formerly, 
with  the  United  Kingdom.  During  the  years  1887-91,  75  per  cent,  of 
the  exports  of  Australia  were  sent  to,  and  70  per  cent,  of  the  imports 
came  from,  the  mother  country.  These  figures  had  fallen  to  48 
per  cent,  and  60  per  cent,  respectively  for  the  period  1906-10.  On 
the  other  hand,  both  Germany  and  the  United  States  had  con- 
siderably improved  their  position.  There  are  several  reasons  for 
this  relative  decline  in  the  share  of  the  trade  belonging  to  the 
United  Kingdom.  With  the  development  of  American  and  German 
shipping  in  the  Pacific,  it  is  probable  that  much  of  the  trade  of  these 
countries  with  the  Commonwealth,  which  was  formerly  indirect,  is 
now  direct,  and  only  natural  that  it  should  be  considerably  aug- 
mented in  amount.  Again,  the  decline  in  the  exports  of  Australia 
to  Great  Britain  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  wool,  which  formerly 
went  to  London  for  distribution  to  France,  Belgium,  and  Germany, 
is  now  exported  to  these  countries  without  the  intervention  of 
London. 

Of  the  exports  of  AustraHa  the  most  important  are  wool  and 
minerals,  including  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  tin,  while  dairy  produce, 
frozen  and  preserved  meats,  wheat,  and  fruit  make  up  the  bulk 
of  the  remainder.  The  first  place  among  the  imports  is  held  by 
textiles  and  wearing  apparel,  in  the  supply  of  which  Great  Britain 
has  the  lead.  This  is  also  the  case  with  regard  to  machinery  and 
manufactured  metals,  which  come  next  in  the  list  of  imports.  In 
both  classes  of  goods,  however,  there  is  considerable  competition 
from  Germany  and  the  United  States.  Among  other  imports  are 
tropical  and  sub-tropical  products,  paper,  wood,  and  liquors 
(alcoholic  and  non-alcoholic). 


AUSTRALIA 


515 


The  following  table  indicates  the  average  value  of  the  exports 
and  imports  for  the  five  years  1906-10. 

Exports 
Wool 
Bullion  and  Specie 


Wheat 
Butter 
Frozen  meat 
Other  articles 


Imports 
Textiles  and  apparel 
Manufactuied  metals  and  machinery 

Wood        

Paper,  books,  etc. 
Chemicals  and  drugs 
Alcoholic  liquors,  etc.   . . 
Beverages  (non-alcohoHc) 
Other  articles 


Value  in 
million  £ 

25-73 

1109 

7-20 

2-96 

208 

17-31 


Percen- 
tage. 

38-8 
16-7 
10-8 
4-5 
3-1 
261 


66-37 

100 

14-97 

28-2 

10-21 

19-2 

2-15 

41 

213 

4-0 

1-80 

3-5 

1-53 

2-8 

1-40 

2-6 

18-91 

35-6 

5310 


100 


CHAPTER  XL VII 

NEW  ZEALAND 

The  Dominion  of  New  Zealand  includes  North  Island,  South 
Island  (sometimes  called  Middle  Island),  and  Stewart  Island,  along 
with  the  Chatham  Islands  and  several  other  groups  in  the  sur- 
rounding seas.  The  total  area  amounts  to  104,751  square  miles 
which  is  rather  more  than  five-sixths  of  the  area  of  the  British 
Isles.  New  Zealand  proper  lies  between  the  34th  and  48th  parallels 
of  south  latitude,  with  a  general  trend  from  south-west  to  north- 
east. South  Island,  the  largest  of  the  group,  contains  the  Southern 
Alps,  which  run  parallel  to  the  west  coast  from  Cook  Strait  to 
lat.  45°  60'  S.  These  are  fold  mountains,  mainly  of  Palaeozoic 
strata  lying  on  a  foundation  of  Archaean  and  plutonic  rocks,  which 
separate  a  narrow  west  coast  district  traversed  by  spurs  projecting 
from  the  main  chain,  and  a  much  broken  eastern  district  con- 
sisting largely  of  Mesozoic  and  Tertiary  material.  The  Tertiary 
lands  lie  along  the  middle  part  of  the  east  coast,  and  form  the 
well-known  Canterbury  Plains.  To  the  north  of  these.  Palaeozoic 
rocks  reappear  in  the  Kaikoura  Chain,  which  runs  in  a  north-easterly 
direction  parallel  to  the  Southern  Alps.  The  southern  part  of  the 
island  is  an  ancient  and  elevated  peneplain  which  has  been  much 
dissected  by  rivers  flowing  in  a  south-easterly  direction,  and  it 
therefore  consists  in  part  of  valleys  and  in  part  of  residual  ranges 
all  having  the  same  general  trend.  The  Kaikoura  mountains  arc 
continued  along  the  east  of  North  Island  as  the  Ruahine  Chain 
which  is  bordered  on  the  coast  by  Secondary  and  Tertiary  forma 
tions,  while  to  the  west  is  the  extensive  volcanic  region  of  Lake  Taupo 
with  the  volcanic  cones  of  Tongariro  and  Ruapehu.  The  mosi 
westerly  part  of  the  island  consists  of  another  great  volcanic  cone; 
Mount  Egmont ;  while  the  north-west  is  built  up  of  ancient  rocks 
and  recent  volcanoes,  connected  the  one  with  the  other  by  Tertiar}; 
deposits  and  volcanic  tuffs  and  lavas. 

Climate. — ^The  temperature  and  rainfall  of  New  Zealand  ar^ 
mainly  controlled  by  the  fact  that  the  greater  part  of  the  Dominion 
lies  within  the  influence  of  the  strong  westerly  winds.  Hence  itJ 
temperature  is  lower  than  its  latitude,  when  compared  with  corre- 
sponding latitudes  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  would  appear  tc 

516 


NATURAL     REGIONS    OF    NEW    ZEALAND 


518  ECONOMIC     GEOGRAPHY 

warrant.  On  the  other  hand,  the  sea  exercises  a  modifying  influence, 
and  the  range  of  temperature  between  summer  and  winter,  and 
between  north  and  south,  is  never  great.  Auckland,  for  example,  has 
a  January  mean  of  66*6°  F.,  and  a  July  mean  of  51*4°  F.,  while 
punedin,  over  600  miles  further  south,  has  a  January  mean  of 

/'57-2°  F.  and  a  July  mean  of  40*5°  F. 
The  rainfall  is  on  the  whole  well  distributed,  both  with  regard 
to  time  and  place.  In  North  Island,  and  more^specially  in  the 
northern  part  of  it,  autumn  and  winter  rains  prevail,  but,  owing  to 
the  influence  of  the  surrounding  seas,  summer  droughts  are  not  so 
marked  as  in  other  regions  with  a  Mediterranean  type  of  climate. 
Except  in  the  more  elevated  districts,  where  it  is  over  60  inches, 
the  mean  precipitation  of  North  Island  is  generally  between  40 
and  60  inches.  In  South  Island,  the  mountains  of  the  west 
coast  receive  the  fuU  force  of  the  westerly  gales  and  obtain  in  conse- 
quence a  rainfaU  of  over  80  inches.  This  gradually  decreases 
eastwards,  and  over  the  Canterbury  Plains  it  does  not  exceed 
30  inches. 

Vegetation. — ^A  great  part  of  New  Zealand  is,  or  has  been, 
forested,  but  the  higher  hiUs  frequently  stand  well  above  the  tree 
line  and  are  covered  with  grass,  which  is  also  the  prevailing  type  of 
vegetation  upon  the  Canterbury  Plains  and  over  much  of  the  Otago 
peneplain.  Among  the  trees  of  the  warm  temperate  forest  of  North 
Island  are  the  valuable  kauri,  which  is,  however,  confined  to  the 
Auckland  peninsula,  and  pines  such  as  the  totara  and  matai.  These 
reappear  in  the  mild  temperate  forest  along  the  west  coast  of  South 
Island,  together  with  various  other  pines,  cedars,  and  yews.  On  the 
east  coast  such  trees  as  the  beech  and  the  birch  are  more  abundant. 
The  wiry  native  grass,  known  as  "  tussock,'*  covers  considerable 
areas,  but  in  many  places  it  has  been  supplanted  or  supplemented 
by  various  English  grasses. 

Population. — The  population  of  the  Dominion  is  estimated  at 
1,058,000,  the  majority  being  of  British  descent.  The  original 
inhabitants  of  the  land  were  the  Maoris,  a  Polynesian  race  with  a 
fairly  high  standard  of  development.  During  the  period  of  warfare 
between  the  Maori  and  the  white  man,  the  number  of  the  former 
rapidly  decreased,  but,  since  the  adjustment  of  the  existing  relations 
between  the  two  races,  this  movement  has  been  first  checked  and 
then  reversed.     In  the  last  twenty  years  the  Maoris  have  increased 


J 


NEW  ZEALAND  519 

their  numbers  by  about  20  per  cent.  Considerable  areas  of  land 
have  been  left  in  their  possession,  and  they  are  represented  in  the 
Dominion  Parliament  by  four  of  their  number.  The  future  of  their 
race  is,  however,  still  somewhat  uncertain.  Although  some  of  its 
members  have  adopted  modern  methods  of  agriculture,  while  others 
have  engaged  successfully  in  industry  and  trade,  a  great  many  still 
live  in  the  same  way  as  their  fathers  did.  If  they  are  to  make 
secure  their  position  in  the  future  history  of  the  state,  it  will  be 
necessary  for  them  to  develop  to  a  greater  extent  than  at 
present  the  resources,  and  more  especially  the  land,  which  they 
possess. 

South  Island — Natural  Regions. — ^The  west  coast  area  with 
its  high  mountains,  narrow  coastal  plain,  heavy  rainfall,  and  dense 
forests,  stands  by  itself.  In  the  east,  the  flat,  generally  treeless 
Canterbury  Plains,  with  the  rolling  downs  which  surround  them, 
may  be  marked  off,  alike  from  the  more  mountainous  and  wooded 
country  in  the  north-east  traversed  by  the  Kaikoura  and  other 
ranges,  and  from  the  grass-covered  Otago  peneplain  in  the 
south. 

The  Canterbury  Plains,  with  the  surrounding  downs,  contain 
considerable  areas  of  fertile  soil  which  constitute  the  chief  agri- 
cultural districts  of  New  Zealand.  With  the  aid  of  irrigation  from 
the  rivers,  large  returns  can  be  obtained,  and  over  two-thirds  of 
the  wheat  and  more  than  one-half  of  the  total  grain  crop  of  the 
Dominion  are  produced  here.  The  wheat  is  softer  than  that  of 
Austraha,  and  not  so  suitable  for  miUing  purposes ;  but  the  jdeld 
per  acre  is  much  higher  and  averages  about  thirty  bushels,  while 
it  is  saidthaTonelimidred  bushels  can  sometimes  be  obtained  under 
the  most  favourable  conditions. 

Pastoral  farming  is  of  great  importance  and  large  areas  are  kept 
under  grass,  but  much  of  the  native  tussock  has  been  mixed  with, 
or  replaced  by,  English  forage  plants.  Until  thejarly  'eighties, 
the  production  of  wool  was  here,  as  elsewhere  m  New  Zealand, 
the  chief  object  of  the  pastorahst,  but  about  that  time  the  develop- 
ment of  refrigerating  apparatus  brought  into  existence  the  trade 
in  fi:ozen  mutton.  This  has  led  to  an  important  change  in  the 
character  of  the  flocks.  The  merino  sheep,  which  had  hitherto 
been  almost  exclusively  raised,  proved  unacceptable  on  the  British 
market,  and  its  place  was  taken,  on  the  richer  lowlying  hills  and 


520  ECONOMIC   GEOGRAPHY 

plains,  by  crosses  between  it  and  Leicesters,  Lincolns,  Romney 
Marshes,  and  other  breeds,  to  serve  the  double  object  of  producing 
a  good  wool  and  providing  fat  mutton.  On  the  higher  lands,  where 
the  native  grass  is  not  suitable  for  fattening  purposes,  the  merino 
is  still  supreme. 

Banks  Peninsula,  a  volcanic  region  with  rich  fertile  soil,  is  devoted 
to  dairy-iarming,  and  produces  large  quantities  of  butter  and  cheese. 
Christchurch  is  the  chief  town  on  the  Canterbury  Plains,  and 
Lyttelton,  eight  miles  distant,  is  its  port. 

The  North-Eastern  Region  does  not  possess  much  land 
suitable  for  cultivation.  What  there  is  occurs  mainly  in  the 
Wairau  Plain,  in  the  lower  part  of  the  basin  of  the  river  of  that 
name.  Here  stands  Blenheim,  the  capital  of  Marlborough,  and 
here  live  over  one-half  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  whole  region. 
Elsewhere  sheep  farming  is  the  principal  occupation  of  the  people. 
The  tussock  grass  of  the  uplands  carries  less  than  one  merino 
sheep  to  the  acre,  but  where  the  forest  has  been  cleared  the  land  is 
richer  and  carries  two  to  four  cross  breeds.  Among  other  industries 
the  most  important  is  saw-milling. 

The  Otago  Peneplain  is  much  dissected  by  rivers,  and  it  is 
in  the  valleys  of  these  rivers,  and  in  the  beds  of  old  lakes  which  they 
have  drained,  that  the  best  agricultural  land  occurs.  QaJt5  is  the 
main  crop  cultivated,  and  about  one-half  of  the  New  Zealand  crop 
is  raised  in  this  region,  which  also  comes  next  to,  though  a  long 
way  behind,  the  Canterbury  Plains  in  the  production  of  wheat. 
Pastoral  farming  is,  however,  a  much  more  important  pursuit  at 
the  present  time,  and  in  South  Island  the  Otago  peneplain  ranks 
next  to  the  Canterbury  Plains  in  the  size  of  its  flocks.  Sheep  are 
fed  upon  the  mountain  pastures  in  summer,  while  in  winter  they 
are  driven  down  to  the  lower  slopes  of  the  hills,  sufficient  fodder 
being  grown  in  the  fiat  valley  bottoms  to  maintain  them  in  seasons 
of  exceptional  severity.  A  number  of  freezing  establishments  have 
been  set  up  here  and  in  the  Canterbury  Plains,  and  both  wool  and 
mutton  are  exported.  Dairying  is  of  growing  importance  in  the 
lowland  areas. 

The  chief  minerals  of  the  region  are  gold  and  CQal.  The  former  I 
occurs  mainly  in  the  d6bris  of  the  older  rock,  and  is  obtained  either  j 
by  sluicing  or  dredging ;  while  the  latter,  which  generally  consists  * 
of  brown  coal  and  lignite,  is  found  in  the  Cretaceous  and  Tertiary 

I 


NEW  ZEALAND  521 

districts  in  the  extreme  south.  Other  industries  include  the 
manufacture  of  woollen  goods  on  a  fairly  large  scale,  the  preparation 
of  New  Zealand  flax  {Phormium  tenax),  and  saw-milling. 

Dunedin  is  the  principal  town,  and  is  situated  upon  Otago 
Harbour.  Ocean-going  steamers  can  reach  its  wharves,  but  the 
larger  vessels  are  berthed  at  Port  Chalmers.  Invercargill  is  the 
chief  town  of  the  southerly  districts  along  Foveaux  Strait,  and  is 
situated  on  New  River  Harbour.  The  Bluff,  the  port  of  Invercargill 
for  vessels  too  large  to  make  their  way  up  the  estuary,  is  the  most 
southerly  in  New  Zealand. 

The  West  Coast,  on  account  of  its  mountainous  character  and 
dense  forest  vegetation,  is  but  slightly  developed.  A  small  pro- 
portion of  the  land  is  cultivated,  and  some  cattle  and  sheep  are 
reared ;  but  the  greater  part  of  the  region  is  as  yet  unoccupied, 
though  large  areas  of  fertile  soil  are  believed  to  exist.  The  geo- 
logical nature  of  the  country  accounts  for  the  variety  and  extent 
of  its  mineral  resources.  Qpld  is  obtained,  by  the  same  means  as 
in  the  Otago  peneplain,  from  alluvial  deposits  along  rivers  and 
beaches,  and  the  whole  of  Westland  is  a  proclaimed  goldfield  in 
which  numerous  quartz  veins  have  also  been  discovered.  Good 
bituminous  coal  is  found  in  the  Cretaceous  rocks  along  the  northern 
part  of  the  west  coast,  and  is  worked  in  the  vicinity  of  Westport 
and  Greymouth,  from  which  places  it  is  exported  to  other  parts 
of  New  Zealand.  Among  other  minerals,  occurring  to  a  greater  or 
less  extent,  are  copper,  iron  ore^  petroleum,  and  greenstone.  The 
chief  towns  are  the  ports  of  Hokitika/^eymouth,  and  Westport, 
all  of  which  serve  the  mineral  industries  of  the  region. 

North  Island. — As  a  result  of  the  geological  formation  of  North 
Island  there  is  much  diversity  in  its  soils,  and  it  is  impossible  to 
give  a  systematic  account  of  the  country  without  entering 
into  great  detail.  Several  distinct  regions  may,  however,  be 
recognised. 

The  Auckland  Peninsula  stands  by  itself  for  several  reasons. 
The  proximity  of  the  sea  to  every  part  of  the  land  reduces  the 
range  of  temperature  between  summer  and  winter,  while  the 
rainfall  is  of  the  Mediterranean  type.  The  forests  include  the 
valuable  kauri,  and,  in  districts  from  which  that  tree  itself  has 
disappeared,  a  resinmis  gum,  used  as  an  ingredient  in  the  manufacture 
of  lac  and  varnish,  is  obtained  in  a  fossil  state.     Mediterranean 


522  ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 

fruits,  such  as  the  vine,  the  orange,  and  the  lemon,  can  be  cultivated 
successfully  where  the  soil  is  favourable  ;  but  arable  farrr)jngf  has 
made  comparatively  liUld.  progress,  as  is  indeed  the  case  in  the 
whole  of  North  Island,  and  pastoral  farming  is  the  more  important 
pursuit,  both  sheep  and  cattle  being  raised.  The  mineral  wealth 
of  the  region  is  considerable.  Gold  is  obtained  from  quartz  veins 
found  in  a  district  which  stretches  from  Great  Barrier  Island, 
north  of  Auckland,  southwards  for  a  distance  of  over  200  miles ; 
and  from  the  mines  of  this  area  comes  more  than  half  of  the  gold 
output  of  New  Zealand.  Cosl,  the  most  of  which  is  consumed 
locally,  occurs  in  various  localities.  Among  manufactures,  the 
preparation  of  New  Zealand  flax  is  more  important  than  in  any 
other  part  of  the  Dominion. 

The  chief  town  is  Auckland,  the  largest  city  in  New  Zealand. 
It  owes  its  importance  to  the  fact  that  it  is  situated  upon  a  narrow 
isthmus,  and  is  thus  able  to  communicate  by  sea  both  with  the 
east  and  west  coasts  of  North  Island.  It  is  a  calling  place  for 
vessels  on  the  route  from  San  Francisco  to  Sydney,  and  is  the 
centre  of  the  gum  collecting  and  gold  mining  industries. 

The  South  West  Region  differs  in  some  respects  from  the 
Auckland  Peninsula.  About  Mount  Egmont  the  volcanic  rocks 
have  weathered  down  into  rich  fertile  soils  which,  being  well  watered, 
constitute  a  valuable  dairying  district.  Between  Mount  Egmont 
and  the  Ruahine  range  there  is  a  large  area  covered  with  "  papa  " 
soils,  derived  from  the  decomposition  of  blue  calcareous  clays. 
These  form  good  pasture  lands,  suitable  for  sheep  rather  than 
cattle,  and,  in  the  more  sheltered  districts  away  from  the  coasts, 
are  of  special  value  for  rearing  lambs  for  the  frozen  meat  trade. 
South  of  the  Rangitikei  River,  alluvial  soils  stretch  in  a  gradually 
narrowing  strip  along  the  coast,  and  on  them  dairying  is  again  the 
most  important  pursuit. 

The  minerals  of  the  region  are  inconsiderable.  Brown  coal, 
used  for  domestic  and  steam  purposes,  occurs  along  the  Mokau 
River,  and  ironsands,  which  so  far  have  not  proved  of  commercial 
value,  lie  along  the  coast  north  of  New  Plymouth. 

The  Volcanic  Region  occupies  a  large  part  of  the  centre  of 
the  island,  and  here  again  the  soils  vary  greatly  in  quality.  In 
many  places  heavy  clays  prevail,  some  of  which  can  only  be  rendered 
fertile   by   much   cultivation,  while    others    are    believed    to   be 


NEW  ZEALAND  523 

undrainable.  On  the  other  hand,  around  the  Hot  Lakes,  considerable 
areas  are  covered  with  pumice  sand  which  is  too  porous  to  be 
fertile.  The  population  of  the  whole  of  this  region  is  small,  and 
the  pastoral  industry  nowhere  attains  much  importance. 

The  Eastern  Mountain  Region,  between  the  Ruahine  range 
and  the  coast,  contains  over  one-fourth  of  the  sheep  in  New  Zealand. 
Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  character  of  the  land  changes  rapidly  from 
place  to  place.  The  great  alluvial  plain  in  the  basin  of  the  Waira- 
lapa  is  suitable  both  for  sheep  and  cattle.  Elsewhere  the  land, 
consisting  partly  of  rolling  downs  and  partly  of  alluvial  fiats,  is 
devoted  almost  exclusively  to  sheep.  In  the  north  the  "  papa  " 
soils  reappear,  but  are  almost  entirely  in  the  possession  of  the 
Maoris. 

Wellington,  the  principal  town  of  the  region  and  the  capital 
of  the  Dominion,  is  situated  on  Port  Nicholson,  an  inlet  of  Cook 
Strait,  and  is  the  meeting  place  of  the  coastal  routes  of  both  islands. 
Hence  it  is  the  most  important  collecting  and  distributing  centre 
of  the  country,  and  transacts  a  great  part  of  its  trans-oceanic  trade. 

Communications. — New  Zealand  has  over  2,800  miles  of  railway, 
much  of  which,  owing  to  the  physical  structure  of  the  country,  has 
been  laid  down  at  great  expense.  In  North  Island,  the  main  trunk 
line  runs  from  Wellington  to  Auckland  and  beyond,  with  branches 
to  Mount  Egmont,  Hawke  Bay,  and  Coromandel  districts.  The 
principal  line  of  South  Island  foUows  the  east  coast  from  Christ- 
church  to  Dunedin  with  extensions  to  the  north  and  south,  and  with 
numerous  branches  across  the  Canterbury  Plains  and  into  the  Otago 
peneplain.  In  the  north-west  of  the  island,  the  mineral  districts  are 
in  railway  communication  with  their  ports,  but  there  is  as  yet  no 
connection  with  the  main  trunk  line  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
mountain  range. 

Commerce. — ^The  trade  of  New  Zealand  is  conducted  mainly  with 
the  mother  country.  In  early  days,  when  wool  was  practically  the 
only  export,  it  naturally  went  to  London,  which  was  then  the 
world's  market  for  that  commodity.  JFrozfijx-flftuttori  and  dairy 
produce,  which  have  been  subsequently  added  to  the  list  of  exports, 
also  find  their  chief  outlet  in  the  more  densely  populated  parts  of 
the  United  Kingdom.  The  figures  shown  on  the  next  page  indicate 
the  average  value  of  the  exports  during  the  years  1906  to  1910  (both 
inclusive). 

33— (1326) 


524 


ECONOMIC  GEOGRAPHY 


Wool  

Frozen  Mutton 

Gold 

Dairy  Produce 

Miscellaneous  (including  hemp  and  kauri  gum) 


The  distribution  of  exports  during  the  same  period  wasas  follows : — j 

United  Kingdom 82*7  per  cent. 

British  Possessions  (chiefly  Australia)      . .  13- 6    „      „ 

Foreign  Countries  . .         . .         . .  3*7     ,,       ,, 

The  imports  consist  in  the  main  of  various  kinds  of  manufactured! 
goods,  and  tropical  and  sub-tropical  products.  They  may  be  classed] 
as  follows  : — 


Value 

Per- 

(in million  £'s) 

centage 

6-65 

350 

3-38 

17-8 

203 

12-5 

2-37 

10-8 

■n)    4-55 

23-9 

£18-98 

100 

Average  value,  1906-10  (both  years  inclusive)  :— 

Value 
(in  million  £'s) 

Textiles  and  apparel             3-67 

Iron  and  steel  goods 3-37 

Per- 
centage 

222 
20-4 

Sugar  and  tea             -83 

50 

Alcohol  and  tobacco              -80 

48 

Paper  and  printed  books -65 

Miscellaneous               7-21 

3-9 
43-7 

£16-53 

100 

Of  this  amount  the  United  Kingdom  contributed  the  largest  share 
even  when  allowance  is  made  for  the  fact  that  probably  10  pe 
cent,  of  the  goods  credited  to  her  were  of  foreign  origin,  and  wed 
shipped  through  British  ports  in  order  to  secure  the  advantaged 
of  the  preferential  tariff  on  imports  of  New  Zealand  coming  froi 
the  mother  country.     The  following  figures  indicate  for  the  fiv^ 
years  1906-10  the  average  percentage  of  goods  shipped  from  the 
United  Kingdom,  British  Dominions,  and  Foreign  States  : — 

United  Kingdom 59*8 

British  Dominions  . .  . .  . .     25*4 

Foreign  States  . .         . .         . .         . .     14*8 


NEW  ZEALAND  525 

The  imports  from  foreign  countries  are  mainly  from  Germany  and 
the  United  States.  The  latter  sends  tobacco,  kerosene  oil,  leather, 
and  electrical  machinery,  and  the  former  manures,  musical 
instruments,  and  fancy  goods. 

Statistical  Abstract  for  Australasia — 1910 

Sheep  Cattle  Wheat  Gold 

(acres)  (fine  oz.) 

Queensland            ..     20,331,000  5,131,000  106,000  441,402 

New  South  Wales       45,560,000  3,140,000  2,128,000  188,857 

Victoria      ..         ..     12,882,000  1,547,000  2,398,000  570,362 

South  Austraha    ..       6,267,000  384,000  2,104,000  6,592 

Western  Austraha         5,158,000  825,000  581,000  1,470,633 

Tasmania               ..       1,788,000  201,000  52,000  37,048 

Northern  Territory             57,000  513,000  —  5,111 


Total  for  Austraha      92,043,000  11,741,000    7,369,000    2,720,005 
New  Zealand  23,480,000     1,773,000       311,000       506,371 

Islands  in  the  Pacific 

Of  the  islands  in  the  Pacific  only  a  few  need  be  mentioned  here. 
New  Caledonia,  which  belongs  to  France,  is  noted  for  its  supplies 
of  nickel.  The  Fiji  Islands  are  British,  and  export  sugar,  copra, 
and  other  tropical  products.  The  Hawaiian  group  was  annexed  by 
the  United  States  in  1898,  and  sends  large  quantities  of  cane-sugar 
to  that  country. 


LIST    OF    WORKS    CONSULTED 

In  preparing  this  book  1  have  drawn  upon  many  sources  of 
information,  but  the  following  is  a  list  of  the  works  to  which 
I  am  more  particularly  indebted. 

GENERAL 

H.  R.  Mill,  International  Geography. 

E.  SuEss,  The  Face  of  the  Earth. 

A.  DE  Lapparent,  Le9ons  de  Geographie  Physique. 

J.  Hann,  Klimatologie. 

H.  N.  Dickson,  Climate  and  Weather. 

A.  J.  Herbertson,  The  Distribution  of  Rainfall  over  the  Lands. 

E.  W.  HiLYARD,  Soils. 

A.  F.  W.  ScHiMPER,  Plant  Geography. 

G.  G.  Chisholm,  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography. 

M.  Dubois,  Pr6cis  de  Geographie  Economique. 

The  Geographical  Journal. 

The  Scottish  Geographical  Magazine. 

The  Bulletin  of  the  American  Geographical  Society. 

Petermanns  Mitteilungen. 

Diplomatic  and  Consular  Reports. 

The  Statesman's  Year  Book. 

Statistical  Abstract. 

EUROPE 

H.  J.  Mackinder,  Britain  and  the  British  Seas. 
G.  G.  Chisholm,  Europe  (in  Stanford's  Compendium). 
J.  CossAR,  The  Distribution  of  the  Towns  and  Villages  of  Scotland 
(in  Scottish  Geographical  Magazine). 

Ireland,  Industrial  and  Agricultural. 

The  Victoria  County  History. 

Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  Coal  Supplies. 

Norway — (Official  publication  for  Paris  Exhibition). 

Sweden— (       „  „  „  „  .,  ). 

R.  Haggard,  Rural  Denmark. 

E.  Levasseur,  La  France. 

ViDAL  DE  LA  Blache,  Tableau  de  la  Geographic  de  la  France. 
M.  Dubois,  Precis  de  Geographie  Economique  (for  France). 

F.  Bernard,  La  HoUande. 
J.  Partsch,  Central  Europe. 
A.  Zweck,  Deutschland. 

W.  H.  LiNDLEY,    Report   on  the   Waterways   of   France,   Germany. 
Belgium,  and  Holland. 

G.  Drage,  Austria-Hungary. 

Russian  A£Eairs. 
M.  DE  KovALEVSKY,  La  Russie  k  la  fin  du  19e  siecle. 
Russian  Year  Book. 
Industries  of  Russia  (official). 

527 


528  LIST  OF  WORKS   CONSULTED 

W.  Deecke,  Italy. 

S.  L.  Besso,  The  Cotton  Industry  in  Switzerland  and  Northern  Italy. 

C.  Eliot,  Turkey  in  Europe. 

Bulgaria  of  To-day.     (Ofi&cial  publication.) 
La  Roumanie.     (Official  publication.) 

D.  G.  Hogarth,  The  Nearer  East. 

J.  DE  Jekelfalussy,  The  Millennium  of  Hungary. 

T.  S.  Dymond,  Agricultural  Industry  and  Education  in  Hungary. 

ASIA 

C.  AuLAGNON,  La  Sib^rie  Economique. 
G.  Drage,  Russian  Affairs. 

Board  of  Trade,  British  Trade  in  Siberia. 
„  „         British  Trade  in  Syria. 

D.  G.  Hogarth,  The  Nearer  East. 

„  „  The  Penetration  of  Arabia.      ^ 

W.  R.  DuNSTAN,'^Agriculture|in  Asia  Minor. 
W.  WiLLCOCKS,  Irrigation  of  Mesopotamia. 
Lord  Curzon,  Persia. 

Imperial  Gazetteer  of  India. 

Report  on  the  Census  of  India. 
T.  HoLDicH,  India. 
H.  W.  Smyth,  Five  Years  in  Siam. 

A.  Little,  The  Far  East. 

L.  Richard,  Geography  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

B.  Willis  and  Others,  Research  in  China. 
Reports  of  the  Chinese  Imperial  Maritime  Customs. 

A.  J.  Sargent,  Anglo-Chinese  Trade  and  Diplomacy. 

H.  B.  Morse,  The  Trade  and  Administration  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

A.  HosiE,  Manchuria. 

China  Year-Book. 
H.  Dyer,  Dai  Nippon. 
H.  Yamawaki,  Japan  in  the  Beginning  of  the  Twentieth  Century. 

United  States'  Commission  in  the  Philippines. 
J.  C.  Willis,  Agriculture  in  the  Tropics. 

AFRICA 

A.  Knox,  The  Climate  of  the  Continent  of  Africa. 

A.  G.  Ogilvie,  Morocco  (in  Geographical  Journal). 

H.  G.  Lyons,  Physiography  of  the  River  Nile. 

F.  C.  Roux,  Le  Coton  en  Egypte. 

Count  Gleichen,  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan. 

J.  W.  Gregory,  Foundation  of  British  East  Africa. 

Lord  Carnworth,  A  Colony  in  the  Making. 

Science  in  South  Africa.     (British  Association  Handbook.) 
Corstorphine  and  Hatch,  Geology  of  South  Africa. 
T.    G.    Trevor,    Physical   Features   of    Transvaal   (in   Geographical 

Journal). 
F.  W.  Mennell,  Rhodesian  Miner's  Handbook. 
R.  Wallace,  Farming  Industries  of  Cape  Colony. 


LIST  OF   WORKS   CONSULTED  529 

J.  D.  Falconer,  The  Geology  and  Geography  of  Northern  Nigeria. 
G.  C.  Dudgeon,   The   Agricultural   and   Forest  Products  of   British 

West  Africa. 
C.  P.  Lucas,  Historical  Geography  of  the  British  Colonies. 

NORTH   AMERICA 

I.  C.  Russell,  North  America. 
C.  S.  Sargent,  Forests  of  North  America. 
A.  J.  Henry,  Climatology  of  United  States. 

Department  of  Mines,   Canada — Report  on  Mining  and  Metallur- 
gical Industries  of  Canada. 
J.  Mavor,  Report  on  the  North-west  of  Canada. 
A.  G.  Bradley,  Canada  in  the  Twentieth  Century. 

Dominion  and  Provincial  Reports  on  Agriculture. 

Reports  of  the  United  States'  Geological  Survey. 

Reports  of  the  United  States'  Census  Office. 

Year-book  of  United  States'  Department  of  Agriculture. 
A.  P.  Brigham,  Commercial  Geography. 
R.  R.  Knock,  Mexico. 

Prince  Bonaparte  and  Others,   Le   Mexique,   au   d6but  du   XXe 
siecle. 

SOUTH   AMERICA 

Bureau  of  American   Republics,  Monographs   on   South  American 

States. 
Department  of  Commerce  of  United   States,  Special   Reports  on 

Trade  Conditions  in  South  American  States. 
R.  R.  Enock,  Peru. 

,,  .,        The  Andes  and  the  Amazon. 

G.  F.  Scott-Elliot,  Chile. 
W.  A.  Hirst,  Argentina. 
P.  Denis,  Brazil. 
Centro  Industrial  do  Brasil,  Le  Bresil. 

AUSTRALASIA 

J.  W.  Gregory,  Australasia  (in  Stanford's  Compendium). 
—  Schofield,  New  Zealand. 

Publications  of  the  Commonwealth  and  States  of  Australia  and  of 
the  Dominion  of  New  Zealand. 


INDEX 


Aachen,  96,  112 

Aar  Valley.  110 

Aargau,  134 

Aberdeen,  43 

Abo,  185,  191 

Abruzzi,  163,  168 

Abu  Hamed,  317 

Abyssinia,  300,  301,  302,  319 

Acacia  verek,  316 

Accrington,  54 

Achras  sapota,  442 

Aconcagua,  467 

Acre,  213 

Adamsthal,  139 

Adda,  Valley  of,  164 

Addis  Abbeba,  319 

Adelaide,  508,  509,  510 

Adige,  Valley  of,  139.  149,  171 

Adrianople,   158,  159,  161 

^gean  Islands,  208 

Afghanistan  219-220 

Afon,  Valley  of,  60 

Africa,  299-357  ;  physical  features, 
299;  climate,  299-302;  vegeta- 
tion, 302-303;  peoples.  303-304; 
countries  of,  305-357 

,  British  East,  320-322 

,  British  West,  341-346 

,  French  West,  346-349 

,  German  East,  323-324 

,  German  South-west,  339-340 

,  Portuguese  East,  338-339 

,  Union  of  South,  325-333 

Agadir,  306 

Agassiz,  Lake,  383,  411 

Agave  sisalana,  439 

Agra,  231,  243 

Agram,  149 

Aguilas.   178,   182 

Ahmadabad,  236 

Ahwaz,  218 

Aidin,  209 

Aintab,  211 

Airdrie,  46 

Aisne,  89,  96 

Akmolinsk,  200 

Alabama,  421 

Alais,  80 

Alaska,  wheat,  24 

,  429-430 

Albacete,  182 

Alb  an  Hills.  163,  169 


Albania,  154,  157,  161 

Albany  (N.Y.).  432,  435 

(W.A.).  512 

Alberta,  388 

Albert  Nyanza,  299,  311 

Albuquerque,  433 

Albury,  504,  508 

Aleppo,  211.  213 

Alessandria.  171 

Alexandretta,  210,  213 

Alexandria,  313,  315 

Alfa,  Algeria,  308 

Alfold.  143.  144 

Algeria.  305.  307-309  ;  physical  fea 
tures.  307;  climate.  307;  Tell 
307-309  ;  high  plateaus.  308,  309 
Sahara,  309  ;  commerce,  308-309 
trade.  309 

Algiers,  307.  309 

Alicante,  177.  182 

Aljustrel.  181 

Allahabad,  231.  243 

Allegheny  plateau,  362.  403-409 

.  R..  407 

AUentown.  408 

AUier,  Valley  of,  78 

Alloa,  47 

Almelo.  101 

Almeria,  177,  178,  182 

Alpaca,  463 

Alps,  30,  77,  84,  105.  132-133,  139- 
140.  162 

Alsace.  107 

Altai,  Mts..  196.  200.  202 

Altena.  112 

Amazon,  Lowlands  of.  448.  470-47 1 

Ambala.  243 

Ambassadors'  Route,  269 

Amber,  117 

Amberg.  108 

Amboise.  86 

Amiens.  86.  87 

Amoy.  271 

Amritsar,  232.  233 

Amsterdam,  96,  100,  101,  102,  121 

Amu-Daria.  R.,  207 

Amur.  R..  204.  205,  206 

plain  of.  274 

Anatolia.  208-210  ;  physical  features, 
208 ;  climate.  208  ;  coastal  dis- 
tricts. 208-209;  plateau,  209; 
minerals,   209-210;    railways.  213 


531 


532 


INDEX 


Ancona,  172 

Andalusia,  175,  177 

Andaman  Islands,  196 

Andijan,  207 

Anglesey,  59 

Angola,  353-355 

Anhwei,  256,  265-270 

Aniene  R.,  16,^ 

Annam,  252,  254 

Annapolis  Valley,  380 

Anping,  289 

Ansichow,  277 

Antigua,  444 

Anti-Lebanon,  210 

Antilles,  Greater,  443 

,  Lesser,  443,  444 

Antisquia,  457 

Antofagasta,  461,  466,  469 

Antrim  plateau,  65 

Antung,  276,  280 

Antwerp,  96,  97,  98,  101 

Anzin,  85 

Aomori,  290 

Apennines,  31,  162,  163 

Appalachian  System,  361-362,  373, 
403-410,  419-421 

Appenzell,   134 

Apuan  Hills,  168 

Apulia,  163,  164,  169 

Arabia,  199,  212-213;  railways,  213 

Arabistan,  214,  216 

Arabs,  303 

Arakan  Hills.  222,  238 

Arakan  Toma  Hills,  196,  238 

Aral  Sea,  198 

Aravalli  Range,  222 

Archangel,  186,  191,  205 

Ardennes,  29,  84,  92-3 

Ardrossan,  44 

Argentine  Republic,  482-489  ;  forest 
region,  482-484  ;  grassland  region, 
484-6  ;  sub-andine  region,  486-7  ; 
manufactures,  487 ;  communica- 
tions, 487-9  ;    commerce,  489 

Argyll,  42 

Arica,  461 

Arizona,  426-7 

Arkansas,  421-2 

Arlberg  Tunnel,  149 

Aries,  89 

Arltunga,  510 

Armenian  Knot,   195,  214 

Armorican  Range,  29 

Arnheim,   101 

Arno  Basin,  163 

Artesian  Basin  of  Australia,  496 

Aryo-Dravidian  Peoples,  226 

Aschaffenburg,  108.  125 

Ashabad,  218 


Ashanti.  342-343 

Ashland,  413 

Ashtabula,  414 

Asia,  195-295  ;  physical  structure, 
195-198;  climate,  198-199  ;  coun- 
tries of,  200-295 

Asia  Minor,  195,  199,  208-210 

Asmara,  320 

Aspidosperma  quelracho,  482 

Assam,  223,  230,  240,  242 

Assiniboine,  R.,  397 

Assiut,  313 

Assuan,  313,  315 

Astara,  218 

Astrakhan,  188 

Asturias,  176 

Asuncion,  480,  488 

Atacama  Desert,  450,  460 

Atbara,  R.,  311,  312 

Atchinsk,  204 

Athabasca  Valley,  391 

Athens,  32.  161 

Atlanta,  421 

Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coastal  Plain,  362, 
374,  415-9 

Atlas  Region,  299.  300,  305-310 

Atrek,  216 

Attar  of  Roses,  Bulgaria.  155 

,  Turkey,   158 

Auckland,  522,  523 

Augsburg,   106.  121 

Augusta,  421 

Aussig,  137 

Australia,  493-515;  physical  fea- 
tures, 493-4;  climate,  494-5; 
irrigation,  496-7 ;  vegetation, 
497-9 ;  general  considerations, 
499-500 ;  Queensland.  500-2 ; 
New  South  Wales,  502-5;  Vic- 
toria. 505-8 ;  South  Australia 
and  Northern  Territory,  508-510; 
Western  Australia,  510-3;  Tas- 
mania, 513-4;  commerce,  514-5; 
statistics,  525 

Austria-Hungary,  136-150;  Austria. 
136-143;  Bohemia,  136-138  ;  Mor- 
avia. 138-139 ;  Austrian  Silesia, 
139;  Alpine  provinces,  139-140; 
Danubian  districts,  141  ;  Karst, 
141-142;  Bosnia,  142;  Galiciaand 
Bukovina,  142-143  ;  Hungary,  143- 
150;  physical  features,  143-4; 
cUmate,  144 ;  Carpathians,  144- 
5 ;  plains,  145-7 ;  Croatia- 
Slavonia,  147-8  :  communica- 
tions, 148-150 ;    commerce,  150 

Aveyron,  80 

Avon,  R. ,  65 

Avonmouth.  65 


INDEX 


533 


Axim,  342 
Ayr,  44 
Azerbaijan,  214 

Baden,  107,  108 

Bad  Lands  (Dapota),  422 

Bagdad,  211,  212,213,  218 

Bagshot  Sands,  64 

Bahamas,  444 

Bahia,  province,  472 

Blanca,  488,  489 

Bahr-el-Ghazal,  311  ;  basin,  299, 
316 

Bahr-el-Jebel,  311 

Bajra,  23 

Bakony  Forest,   143 

Baku,   190 

Balata.  455 

Bali,  292,  294 

Balkan  Mts.,  30 

States,  154-161,  physical  fea- 
tures, 154 ;  Bulgaria,  154-6  ; 
Servia,  156-7  ;  Turkey-in-Europe, 
157-159;  Greece,  159-160;  com- 
munications, 160-1 

Ballachulish,  43 

Ballarat,  506,  508 

Balsam,  441 

Baltimore,  405,  407,  409 

Baluchistan,  220,  228-229.  242 

Bamberg,   108,   109 

Bangkok,  250,  251,252 

Banka,  294 

Banks  Peninsula,  520 

Bantus,  303 

Baraba  Steppe,  202 

Barawa,  320 

Barbados,  444 

Barcelona,  178 

Barfurush,  215 

Bari,   170 

Barklay  Tableland,  500 

Barley  25,  33  ;  Anatolia,  209  ;  Syria, 
210 

Barmen,   112,   125 

Barnaul,  203 

Baroda,  243 

Barranquilla,  458 

Barrow,  56 

Barry  Dock,  60 

Bartsch,  115 

Baruth,  115 

Barwon  R.,  504 

Basel,  121,  122,   134,  135 

Basilicata,  168 

Basra,  212,  218 

Bassein,  240 

Basutoland,  333 

Batang,  277 


Batavia,  293 

Bathurst  (Gambia),  341 

(N.S.W.).  505 

Batley,  51 

Batum,  190 

Bauchi  plateau,  345 

Bavaria,  105-6 

Bavarian  Forest,  105,  106.  109,  136 

Bay  of  Fundy,  378 

Bayonne,  82,  88 

Bechuanaland  Protectorate,  333-334 

Bechuanas,  304 

Bedawins,  212 

Beechworth,  506 

Beet,  25 

Beira,  336,  338,  339 

Beirut,  213 

Belfast,  66, 

,  Transvaal,  332 

,  Vict,  507 

Belfort,  84 

Belgium,  30,  92-98;  physical  fea- 
tures, 92  ;  climate,  92  ;  Ardennes 
plateau,  92-93 ;  Carboniferous 
area,  93-94  ;  Central  Belgium  and 
Flanders,  94-95  ;  Campine,  95-6  ; 
railways,  96  ;    waterways,  96-7 

Belgrade,  161 

Bell  Island,  380,  399 

Beltran,  458 

Benares,  231 

Bender-Gez,  215 

Bendigo,  506,  508 

Bengal,  222,  229-231,  232,  243 

,  Eastern,  230 

Benha,  315 

Beni-Saf,  308 

Benkulen,  293 

Bennisch,  139 

Benue,  343 

Berar,  235 

Berber,  316,  318 

Berbera,  320 

Berbers,  303 

Bergamo,  166 

Bergen,  74 

Berkshire  Hills,  362 

Berlin,  32,  117,  123,  125 

Bern,   135 

Berwickshire,  48 

Beskides,  139 

Bethlehem   (S.  Africa),  337 

Beuthen  120 

Bezwada.  244 

Bhamo,  239 

Bhusawal,  244 

Bielefeld,  113 

Bielitz,  139 

Biella.  167 


534 


INDEX 


Bihar,  243 
Biisk,  205 
Bilbao,  176,  182 
Billiton,  294 
Birjand,  218 
Birmingham,  58 

,  U.S.,  421 

Biskra,  307,  309 

Bizerta,  310 

Blackburn,  54 

Black  Earth,  Russian,  183 

Black  Elster,  115 

Black  Forest,  103,  107 

Blansko,   139 

Blantyre  (Nyasaland),  338 

Blanzy,  SO 

Bleiberg,   140 

Blenheim,  520 

Bloemfontein,  329,  337 

Bloomington  (111.),  409 

Bluefields.  442 

Blue  Grass  Region,  420 

Mts.  (N.S.W.),  504 

Ridge,  362,  432 

Bluff,  The,  521 

"  Bocage  Normand,"  81 

" Vendeen,"  81 

Bockum,  112 

Boehmeria  nivea,  267 

Boeotia,  160 

Bogota,  457,  458 

Bohemia,  136-138 

Bohemian  Block,  29 

Bokhara,  206,  207 

Boksburg,  332 

Bolivia,  460-462  ;  physical  features, 
460;  Puna,  460;  Montana  460- 
461;  communications,  461-462 

Bologna,  167,  172 

Bolton,  54 

Bombay,  234,  241 

Bona,  309 

Boom,  95 

Bordeaux,  81,  82,  88,  89,  91 

Borghat,  243,  244 

Borneo,  292,  294 

Boryslaw,  142 

Bosnia,   141,  149 

Boston,  380.  402,  403,  405 

Botosani,   152 

Bougie,  309 

Boulder  Clay,  63 

Boureynsky,  205 

Bourke,  505 

Bow,  R.,  387,  394 

Bozeman  Tunnel,  433 

Brabant,  North,  99 

Bradford,  51";;  •>! 

Bradford-on-Avon.  62 


Brahmaputra  plain,  227,  230,  277 

Braila,  152 

Brandenburg,  115 

Brazil,  470;  Amazonial  lowlands, 
470-471  ;  Atlantic  margins,  471- 
474  ;  Sao  Paulo.  474-475  ;  Tem- 
perate South,  475  ;  Central  region, 
475-476 ;  communications,  476- 
477  ;   commerce,  477-478 

Brecon,  59,  60 

Breda,  101 

Bremen,  118,  121,  122.  127,   150 

Bremenhaven,  127 

Bremer,  R.,  501 

Brenner  Pass,  149,   171 

Breslau,  122 

Brest,  81,  88 

Brewing,  England,  59 

,  Ireland,  67,  68 

,  Germany,  106,  109 

,  Austria,  138,  141 

Brig,  135 

Brindisi,  170, 

Brisbane,  501,  502 

Bristol,  71 

and  Somerset  coalfield,  65 

British  Columbia,  363.  373.  389-393 

Honduras,  441,  442 

Brittany,  29,  77,  80-81 
Broach,  236 
Brockton,  403 

Broken  Hill  (North  Rohd.),  336,  353 

Hills     (N.S.W.),     503,     509. 

510 

Bromberg,   123 

Broome,  513 

Broxburn,  47 

Bruck,   149 

Bruges,  96 

Briinn,  138,  139 

Brusio,  R.,  166 

Brussels,  96 

Buckingham,  377 

Buckwheat,  25 

Budapest,  147,   148,  149 

Budweis,   137 

Buenos  Aires,  461,  480.  484-486,  488 

Buffalo,  408,  409,  413,  414,  432,  435 

Bukarest,  149,  152 

Bukovina.  142,  149 

Bulawayo,  334,  335,  336,  337 

Bulgaria,  154-156,  agriculture.   155  ; 

railways  161 
Bulhar,  320  _ 

Bunbury,  512 
Bunder  Abbas,  217,  218 
Burgas,  161 
Burgos,   182 
Burgundy  Canal,  89 


INDEX 


535 


Burma,  196,  220,  223.  225.  238-240  ; 
physical  features,  238 ;  climate, 
238-239  ;  natural  regions,  239  ; 
Littoral  districts,  239 ;  Upper 
Burma  (wet).  239  ;  Upper  Burma 
(dry),  239;  Sub-deltaic  and  del- 
taic tracts.  240  ;  minerals,  242  ; 
railways,  243;    rice  export,  245 

Burntisland,  45 

Burra-Burra,  509 

Burton,  59 

Bury,  54 

Bushire,  217.  218 

Bushmen,  303 

Buxtehude,  117 

Buzi  Valley,  339 

Bwana  M'Kubwa,  336 

Bzura,  115 

Caatinga,  17 

Cacao,  19;  W.  Africa,  342,  344,  349 
350,  351,  352;    Sao  Thome,  355 
West  Indies,  443 ;  Venezuela,  454 
Ecuador,  459;   Brazil,  471,  473 

Caceres,  Spain,  182 

,  Colombia,  458 

Cadiz,  178.  182 

Caen,  87 

Cagayan  Valley,  295 

Cairo,  312,  313 

Cairns.  502 

Calabria,  163 

Calais.  87,  89 

Calcium  Carbide,  (manufacture  of), 
Norway,  74;    Italy,  167 

Calcutta,  231,  241.  244 

Caledon,    Basin,  330 

Caleta  Buena,  466 

Calgary,  383,  387 

Calicut,  238 

California.  364,  428-430  ;  Lower,  440 

Callao,  464,  465 

Calmar,  458 

Cambodia,  252,  253 

Cambridge,  32,  63 

Campagna,  169 

Campania,  163,  169 

Camphor,  China,  270 

,  Formosa,  289 

Campine,  92,  95-96 

Campocologno,  166 

Canada  ;  physical  features,  361-364  ; 
climate  364-368  ;  vegetation,  368- 
371;  natural  regions,  371-373; 
Laurentian,  plateau,  376-378 ; 
Maritime  provinces.  378-381  ;  St. 
Lawrence  lowlands,  381-383; 
V^innipeg  Basin.  383-388  ;  Atha- 
basca Mackenzie  plains.  388-389  ; 


Canada  {cont.) — 

British  Columbia,  389-393  ;  Yukon 
393-394 ;  communications.  394- 
397 ;   commerce.  397-399 

Canal  de  Briare.  89 

de  Jonction,  96 

de  I'Est,  89 

de  St.  Quentin,  89 

du  Centre,  89 

du  Loing,  89 

du  Midi.  89 

Cannock  Chase,  56 

Cannstadt,  109 

Cantabrian  Mts..  175 

Canterbury    plains,    516,    518,  519- 

Canton.  272,  273  [520 

Caoutchouc.  17-18.  see  Rubber 

Cape  Breton  Island,  378-381 

Cape  Colony,  300,  302,  326-328 ; 
physical  features,  326  ;  climate, 
326  ;   natural  regions,  326-328 

Capetown,  336 

Carboniferous  Limestone,  45 

Cardiff,  60,  71 

Cariboo,  391 

Carinthia.  139-140 

Carludovica  palmata,  459 

Carluke,  44 

Carmarthen,  59,  60 

Carniola,  139-140,  141 

CaroUna,  South,  415-421,  434 

Carpathians,  30,  143,  151 

Carpets,  Asiatic  Turkey,  209  ;  Persia, 
216,217;   India,  232 

Carrara,  168 

Carse  of  Gowrie,  47 

Cartagena  ;  Spain,  178,  182  ;  Colom- 
bia,  458 

Casablanca,  306 

Cascades,  Northern,  363 

,  Southern,  363 

Caspian  Sea,  195,  198 

Cassel,  121,  123 

Castile,  New,  177 

,  Old,  174,  176,  178 

CasHlloa  elasHca,  18,  437 

Castlecomer,  68 

Catalonia,  178 

Catania,  32,  170 

Catawba,  R.,  421 

Cattle.     U.S..  423; 
Uruguay,  481 ; 
486 ;     AustraUa, 
New  Zealand,  523 

Cauca  Valley,  456 

Caucasus.  30,  190 

Cayster,  209 

Cebu,  294 

Celebes.  292,  294 


Paraguay,  479 
Argentine,  485 
500.    504,    512 


536 


INDEX 


Central  America,  441-444 

Cephalonia,  160 

Cerro  de  Mercado,  439 

Cerro  de  Pasco,  463,  464 

Cette,  88 

Ceylon,  247-248 

Chaco,  482 

Chad,  Lake,  Basin,  343 

Chalons,  89 

Chaman,  243 

Champagne,  85 

Champlain,  Lake,  362 

Changchun,  276 

Changtehfu.  263 

Charente,  R..  82 

Charleroi,  93,  94,  96 

Charleroi-Brussels  Canal,  96 

Charleville,  502 

Charlotte,  421,  432 

Charlottenburg,  125 

Charlottetown,  378 

Charters  Towers,  501,  502 

Chartres,  89 

Chateau  S  alius,  110 

Chatham  Island,  516 

Chattanooga,  421,  433 

Chaumont,  88 

Chaux-de-Fondes,  134 

Chefoo,  263,  264 

Chekiang,  270-271 

CheUabinsk,  191,  206 

CheUff,  R.,  308 

Cheling  Pass,  269 

Chemicals.     England,    50,    55,    58  ; 

Belgium,  93-94;    Germany,    107 
Chemnitz,  118,  119,  125 
Chemulpo,  280 
Chengtu,  264,  269,  273,  277 

plateau.  265,  269 

Chenkiang,  268,  270 

Chenting-fu,  263 

Cherbourg,  81,  87 

Cheremkovo,  204 

Cherry  Bluff.  392 

Cheyenne,  433 

Chianti  wine.  168 

Chicago,    394,    411,    412,   413,    414, 

415,    432,    433,    434 

Drainage  and  Ship  Canal,  435 

Chicle  gum,  442 

Chicoutimi,  377 

Chieng-mai,  251,  252 

Chile,  465-469  ;     physical    features, 

465-466;     Northern    desert,  466- 

467  ;      Semi-desert    region,    467  ; 

Central  Chile.  467-468  ;    Southern 

Chile,  468  ;    communications,  468- 

469 ;   commerce,  469 
Chili,  256.  260 


Chillagoe,  501 

Chillies,  20 

Chilterns,  36 

China  Proper,  256-274,  278-279; 
physical  features,  256 ;  climate, 
256-258  ;  vegetation,  258  ;  general 
considerations,  258-259 ;  natural 
regions,  259-260  ;  Hwang-ho  basin, 
260-265  ;  Hwang-ho  basin,  com- 
munications of,  263-265  ;  Yangtse 
basin,  265-270 ;  Yangtse  basin, 
communications  of,  268-270 ; 
Chekiang  and  Fokien,  270-27 1 ; 
Si-Kiang  basin,  271-274  ;  Si-Kiang 
basin,  communications  of ,  272-274; 
commerce,  278-279 

Chinchow-fu,  275 

Chinde,  338-339 

Chindwin,  R.,  238,  239 

Chinese  Empire,  256-279 

Chinese  Plateau,  256 

Chinghsing,  262 

Chinghuachen,  264 

Chinsok  Winds,  384,  422 

Chios,  208 

Chipewyan,  388 

Chittagong,  244 

Chiwonga,  337 

Cholon.  250 

Chorley.  54 

Chota  Nagpur,  236 

Chumbi  Valley,  277 

Chumpawn,  251 

Chungking,  269 

Christchurch,  520,  523 

Christiania,  74,  76 

Chubut,  487 

CiUcia,  208,  209 

Cinchona,  20 

Cincinnati,  431 

Cinnamomum  Camphora,  270 

Cindad  BoUvar,  456 

ClanwiUiam,  326 

Clark's  Fork,  433 

Clansthal,  125 

Clermont-Ferrand,  80 

Cleve,  101 

Cleveland,  408,  413.  432 

Cleveland  Hills,  50 

Climate,  6-14 

Cloncurry,  502 

Clyde,    Scotland,  47 

.  United  States.  435 

Clydebank,  47 

Clydesdale,  44 

Coal.  Scotland,  44-45;  England, 
49,  50-51,  53,  56,  57,  58,  59,  60,  64- 
65  ;  France,  80,  85  ;  Belgium,  93, 
95;  Holland,  101  ;  Germany,  111, 


INDEX 


537 


Coal  (cont.) — 

118,  119,  120;  Austria.  137,  133, 
139  ;  Hungary,  145  ;  Spain,  176  ; 
Russia,  186,  187,  189  ;  Siberia,  204, 
205;  Persia,  215;  India,  242; 
Tongking,  254-255;  China,  262, 
.267,272;  Japan,  284,  287  ;  Natal, 
329 ;  S.  Rhodesia,  335 ;  Canada, 
380,  388,  392  ;  U.S..  404,  405.  412, 
413,419,420,429,430;  Venezuela, 

455  ;  Chile,  468  ;  Austraha,  500- 
501,  504,  507,  512,  514;  New 
Zealand,  520,  521.  522 

Coatbridge,  46 

Coatzacoalcos,  440 

Cobalt,  377 

Cobar,  503,  505 

Coblentz,  121 

Cochin,  238,  244 

Cochin-China,  252,  253,  254 

Coccus  Pela,  267 

Coffee,  18,  19  ;  Arabia,  213  ;  India, 
234;  Java,  292;  British  E.  Africa, 
322;  Mexico,  437,  438;  Central 
America,  441,  442  ;  West  Indies, 
444  ;  Venezuela,  454-455  ;  Colom- 
bia, 457  ;    Brazil,  473,  474 

Cognac,  82 

Cogon  Grass,  294 

Cohuna.  506 

Collie  512 

Collo  deir  Altare,  162 

Colmar,  107 

Colne,  54 

Cologne,  96,  111,  112,  121 

Colombia,  456-458;  physical  features, 

456  ;  tropical  lowlands,  456-457  ; 
sub-tropical  region,  457 ;  cool  tem- 
perate region,  457  ;  minerals,  457  ; 
communications,  457-458 ;  com- 
merce, 458 

Colombo,  247.  248 

Colon,  481 

Colorado  State.  424-425 

plateau,  363,  374 

Columbia,  421 

plateaus,    363,    374,    425-426 

river,  389,  433 

Columbus,  408,  410,  421 

Commentry,  80 

Como,  166,  171 

Comox,   392 

Concordia,  488 

Conemaugh,  R.,  432 

Congested  Districts  Board,  67 

Congo  basin,  302,  350-354 

,  Belgian,  351  ;  physical  features, 

35 1  ;  climate.  35 1  ;  natural  regions, 
351-353;    communications,  353 


Congo,  French,  350-351 

Conneaut,  414 

Connecticut,    400-403 

Connellsville,  405 

Constanta,  152 

Constantine,  309 

Constantinople,  150,  159,  161 

Constitucion,  468 

Continental  shelf.  5,  30 

Controller  Bay,  430 

Copenhagen,   130 

Copper.  Spain,  178 ;  Japan,  287 ; 
Belgian  Congo,  352;  Canada,  377, 
392  ;  U.S.,  416,  424,  425,  427,  429  ; 
Chile,  467  ;  Austraha,  500-501,  503, 

Copper,  R.,  430  [509,  513 

Coquimbo,  467 

Cordillera  de  Merida,  454 

Cordoba,  Spain,  178,  182 

,  Argentine  State,  484-486 

City,  485,  488 

Corfu,  160 

Cork,  68 

,  Portugal,  181 

,  Morocco,  306 

,  Algeria,  308 

Cornwall,  61 

CornwalUs  Valley,  380 

Coromandel  (N.Z.),  523 

coast,  225 

Coromines,  455 

Coronel,  468 

Corrientes,  484-486,  488 

Corumba,  478 

Corunna,  182 

Costa  Rica,  441,  442 

Cotswold,  35 

Cotton  Manufactures.  Scotland,  47  ; 
England,  53-55;  Sweden,  76; 
France,  84,  86;  Belgium  95; 
Holland,  101 ;  Germany,  106,  107, 
109,  112,  118,  120;  Switzerland, 
134;  Austria,  133,  140,  141; 
Italy,  166-167  ;  Spain,  179  ;  Rus- 
sia. 185,  187  ;  India,  232,  234-235, 
236,  240-241 ;  China,  263,  268, 
272;  Japan,  288;  U.S.,  402, 
421  ;    Mexico,  439 ;    Brazil,  473 

(Raw),  21-22  ;   Russian  Central 

Asia,  207  ;  AnatoHa,  209  ;  Syria, 
211  ;  Persia,  215  ;  India,  232.  235- 
236;  Cambodia.  253  ;  China,  261, 
266-267.  270;  Egypt,  314-315; 
Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan,  317 ; 
Uganda,  318;  Nyasaland,  338; 
Nigeria,  345;  U.S.,  416-418  ;  West 
Indies,  444  ;  Colombia.  456  ;  Peru. 
462  ;  Brazil,  473,  474  ;  Australia, 
501-502,  510 


538 


INDEX 


Courland,  185 
Courtrai,  95 
Coventry,  59 
Cracow.  122.  142.  149 
Cradley,  58 
Craiova.  152 
Crefeld.  112.  125 
Cremona.  171 
Creusot.  80 
Crimea.   183 
Crimmitschau.  118 
Cripple  Creek.  425 
Croatia,  141.  143 
Cronstadt,  185 
Crowsnest  coalfield,  392 

Pass,  394 

Cserna.  145 
Cua-cam.  255 
Cuba.  22.  179.  443 
Cumberland,  432 

.  Coalfield.  56  ;   U.S.,  380 

Plateau,  362.  420 

CunnamuUa.  502 
Cunninghame.  507 
Currants,  180 
Cuxhaven,   127 
Cuzco,  464 
Cypress  Hills,  388 
Cyrenaica,  310 
Czenstochowa,  186 

Dairen,  275,  276 

Dairy  Produce.  Ireland,  68 ;  Hol- 
land, 100;  Denmark,  129-130; 
Switzerland,  133;  Siberia,  203; 
Canada,  381-382 

Dalmatia,    141 

Dalmuir,  47 

Dairy,  46 

Daltonganj,  242 

Damanama  Plateau,  325,  339 

Damascus,  211,  213 

Damietta,  315 

Damodar,  coalfield,  237,  242 

Dannemora  ore  field,  75 

Danube,  123,  148,  161 

Danzig.  118,  122,  128 

Dar-es-Salaam,  324 

Darfur.   316 

Plateau.  299 

Darjeeling.    228 

Darling  Downs,  500,  502 

,  R.,  505 

Darlington,  50 

Darnetal.  86 

Darwen,  54 

Date  Palm.  20.  309.  310 

Dauphin,  Lake,  395 

Day  Degrees,  24 


De  Aar,  337 

Dead  Sea.  210 

Deccan.  221.  223.  228.  235-237 

Dega.  319 

Deister.  104.   112 

Delaware.   403-404 

.  R.,  406.  432 

Delft.  101 

Delhi.  231.  243 

Denbigh  coalfield.  59 

Dendre,    96 

Denmark,  129-131 ;  physical  features, 
129 ;  climate.  129 ;  agriculture, 
129-130;  manufactures.  130; 
commerce.    130-131 

Denver.  433 

Deraa.  213 

Des  Plains  R.,  435 

Detroit,  394 

Deventer,  101 

Devonport,  61 

Dewsbury,  51.  52 

Diamonds,  328,  330,  332,  340 

Dieppe,  87 

Dieuze,  110 

Dijon,  88 

Dinaric  Mts.,  154 

Dire  Dawa,  319 

Djerid  oases,  310 

Dnieper,  191 

Doab,  Lower.  229 

,  Upper,  229 

Dobrudja,  151.  152 

Dolichos  soja,  25-26 
I  Dombrowa  coalfield,  187 

Dominica,  444 

Don,  191 

Donegal,  65,  66 

Donetz  Basin,  186,  189 

Donkyr.  277 

Donnai.  253 

Dora  Baltea,  164 

Dora  Riparia,  171 

Dordrecht,   101 

Dornbirn,  140 

Dorset  Downs,  36 

Dortmund,  112,  122 

Dortmund-Ems  canal.  122 

Douro  Valley,  182 

Dover.  63 

Dowlais.  60 

Drama.   158 

Drave.  R..  148 

Valley.  139.  149 

Dravidian  peoples,  225 

Drenthe,  99 

Dresden,  118,  122 

Droitwich,  58 

Dromling,  115 


INDEX 


539 


Dublin,  67 
Dudley,  58 

Duisburg-Ruhrort,  112 
Duluth,  413,  433,  435 
Dumbarton,  44,  45,  47 
Dumfries,  48 
Dundas,  513 
Dundee,  47 

,  Natal,  329 

Dunedin,  521,  523 
Dunfermline,  47 
Dunkirk,  86,  87,  89,  91 
Duquesne,  408 
Dunvegan,  388 
Durban,  328,  337 
Diisseldorf,  112,  121 
Dutch  East  Indies,  292-294 
Dwina,  R.,  191,  205 
Dzungaria,  276 

Earthenware.  England,  57  ;  Bel- 
gium, 94,  95  ;  Holland,  101  ; 
Germany,  109,  119  ;  Austria.  138  ; 
China,  268 

East  Coolgardie,  511 

East  London,  337 

Easton,  408 

East  St.  Louis,  412 

Eastern  Townships,  383 

Ebbw  Valley,  60 

Eberswalde,  125 

Ebony,  20 

Embro  basin,  174,  175 

Echigo,  287 

plain,  281 

Echuca,  506,  508 

Economic  Geography,  definition  of,  1 

Ecsed.   143 

Ecuador,  458-460;  physical  features, 
458-459;  cHmate,  459;  West 
coast,  459  ;  Cordillera,  459  ;  Mon- 
taiia,  459  ;  communications,  459- 
460 

Edinburgh,  47 

coalfield,  45 

Edmonton,  383,  388,  395 
Edward  Nyanza,  299,  311 
Egypt,      312-315;      climate      313; 

valley  and  delta  of  Nile,  313-315  ; 

deserts,    315  ;        communications, 

315  ;  trade,  315 
Egyptians,  303 
Eibdswald,  140 
Eifel,  103,  110 
Eisak,  149,  171 
Eisenerz,  140 
Ekaterinburg,  191 
Ekaterinoslav,  188,  189 
Ekibastuz,  coalfield,  204 

34— (1336) 


Elba,  163 

Elbe,  R.,  123.  124 

Trave  canal,  123 

Elberfeld,  112 

Elbeuf,  86 

Elburz  Mts..  195,  214,  215 

EUsabethville.  336,  353 

Elk,  R.  coalfield,  392 

El  Obeid,  318 

Paso,  433,  439 

Emden,  121,  122,  127 

Emmerich.  101 

Ems,  R.,  122 

Emscher,  R.,  112 

Engelsberg,  139 

England,  29,  30.  35-36,  41-42,  48-65  ; 
Pennine  Chain,  35,  41,  48-49 ; 
North-east  Industrial  Region,  49- 
50 ;  Yorkshire,  Derbyshire  and 
Nottingham  Coalfields,  41.  50-52; 
Lancashire  Industrial  Region.  41, 
53-56  ;  Lake  District,  35,  41,  56  ; 
Central  Plain,  35,  41,  56-57; 
Cheshire  Salt  District,  57  ;  North 
Staffordshire  Coalfield,  57  ;  Black 
Country,  57-58 ;  Warwickshire 
Coalfield,  58-59  ;  Wales,  35,  59-61 ; 
Peninsula  of  Devon  and  Cornwall, 
35,  61  ;  Scarplands  and  Tertiary 
Formations,  35,  61-66;  Jurassic 
Area;  35,  41,  62;  Cretaceous 
Region,  36,  41,  63 ;  London  and 
Hampshire  Basins,  36,  42,  63,  64 ; 
Severn  Estuary,  42,  64-65 

Ennepe,  R.,  112 

Enns  Valley,  139,  149 

Enschede,  101 

Entebbe,  318 

Entre  Rios,  482,  484-486 

Enzeli,  215,  218 

Epernay,  88 

£pinac,  80 

Spinal,  84 

Erfurt,  114,  121 

Erie,  408,  413,  414, 

Canal,  435 

Lake,  409 

Eritrea,  320 

Erzberg,  141 

Erzgebirge,  104,  118,  136 

Escanaba,  413 

Esino,  172 

Eskdale,  56 

Esneh,  314 

Espiritu  Santo,  472 

Esseg,  148 

Essen,  112 

Essex,  63 

Esslingen,  109 


540 


INDEX 


Esthonia,  185 

Estremadura,   176,  177 

Etna.   170 

Etsch,  see  Adige 

Etomami,  395 

Euboea,   160 

Euphrates,  198,  210,  211 

Europe,  29-191  ;  physical  features, 
29-30;  climate,  30-33;  Rainfall 
map,  31;  Vegetation,  33;  Coun- 
tries of,  34-192 

Evans  Pass,  433 

Evesham,  Vale  of,  56 

Evreux,  86 

Eydtkuhnen,  191 

Faenza,  172 

Fairbanks,  430 

Falkirk,  46 

Fall,  R.,  402 

Falster,  129 

Fangtze,  262 

Faro,   182 

Fatshan,  272 

Feldkirch,   135 

Fengtien,  275 

Fens,  63 

Ferghana,  206,  207 

Fernie,  392 

Fez,  306 

Fezzan  oases,  310 

Fibres,  25 

Ficus  elastica,     18 

Fifeshire  coalfield,  44,  45 

Figig,  309 

Fiji  Islands,  525 

Fingal,  514 

Finland,  29.  183,  185 

Finow  Canal,   123 

Fisheries,     Scotland.   43 ;    England, 
61,  63;    Norway,  73-74;    France 
81  ;     Siberia,  205 ;     Japan,    286 
Canada,  39 1  ;  Newfoundland,  399 
U.S.,  401 

Fitzroy,  R.,  502 

Fiume.   141,  149,   150 

Flaming,  115 

Flanders,  92,  94-95 

Flax,    25 ;     Ireland,    m ;     Belgium 
94-95;    Russia.  185-186 

Fhnt  coalfield.  59 

Florence.  169,  172 

Florida,  417,  434 

Flushing,   101,  121 

Fohn  Winds,  132 

Fokien,  270-271 

Folkestone,  63,  71 

Foochow.  271 

Forest  of  Arden,  58 


Forest  of  Dean  coalfield,  64 

Formosa,  Japanese  Empire,  271,  282 
283,  289,  290 

,  Argentine,  482 

Fort  Jameson,  336 

Johnston,  337 

Providence,  389 

Simpson,  388,  389 

Fourmies,  86 

Fourteen  Springs,  337 

Foyers,  43 

France,  30,  77-91  ;  physical  features, 
77  ;   Central  Massif,  29,  77,  78-80 
Armorican    Massif,     77,      80-82 
Brittany,    77 ;         Ardennes     77 
Vosges,  77  ;  Aquitaine,  77,  81-83 
Basin    of  Paris,   77,    78 ;     Rhorn 
Valley,   77,    78,    82-84;     Climate. 
77-78 ;        Mediterranean     Region, 
82-84  ;  Alpine  Region,  84  ;  Eastern 
Border,   84 ;    Basin  of   Paris,  84- 
86  ;    General  resume,  86-87  ;    rail- 
ways,    87-89  ;       waterways,    89  ; 
commerce,  90-91 

Franconia,  108-109 

Franconian  Jura,   103 

Frankfurt-on-Main.  107,  121,  122 

Eraser,  R.,  391 

Frauenfeld,   134 

Fraxinus  Chinensis,  267 

Fray  Bentos,  481 

Fredericton,  378 

Freemantle,  512 

Freewaldau,  139 

Freiberg,   125 

Freitown,  342 

French  Indo-China,  252-255  ;  phy- 
sical features,  252 ;  climate,  252- 
253;  Cambodia,  253;  Cochin- 
China,  253  ;  Laos  Territory,  253  ; 
Annam,  254  ;  Tongking,  254-255  ; 
communications,  255  ;  commerce, 
255 

,  R.,  397 

Freudenthal,   139 

Friedek,  139 

Friesland,  99 

Frome,  62 

Fruit.  Cape  Colony,  327  ;  Canada, 
380,391;  U.S.,  400;  West  Indies, 
443-444  ;  Austraha,  506 ;  New 
Zealand,  506 

Fukui,  288 

Fulani,  303 

Fiinen,  129 

Funiu-shan,  256 

Funtumia  elastica,  18 

Fusan,  276,  280 

Fushun.  275 


INDEX 


541 


Futa  Jallon  Mts.,  299 

Gabes,  310 

Galashiels,  48 

Galatz,  152 

Galicia.  Austria,   142-143.   149 

,  Spain.  174,  175-176 

Gallarate,  166 

Galveston,  419 

Gambia,  341 

Ganges,  Canals,  229 

Gangetic  Plain,  198,  224,  227,  229- 

231 
Gap  of  Belfort,  88,  89,  122 

of  Saverue,  88,  121,  122 

Garonne,  R.,  89 
Garrucha,  178 

Gate  of  Furth,  149 

Gawler,  509 

Gazaland,  339 

Gebweiler,  107 

Geelong,  507,  508 

Geestemiinde,  127 

Geislingen,  109 

Gelderland,  99 

Gellivara,  75 

Gelsenkirchen,   111,  112 

Geneva,   134,   135 

Genoa,  168,  171 

Georgia,  415-421 

Georgian  Bay  Canal,  397 

Geraldton,  513 

Germany,  29.  30,  103-128;  physical 
features,  103-104;  Alpine  Fore- 
land, 105-106  ;  German  Alps,  105  ; 
Rift  Valley  of  Rhine,  106-107; 
Swabian  and  Franconian  Jura, 
107 ;  South-Central  Scarplands, 
108-110;  Lorraine,  110;  Rhine 
Massif,  110-113;  Saar  Coalfield, 
111;  Ruhr  Coalfield.  Ill;  North- 
Central  Uplands,  113-114 ;  North 
German  Lowlands,  114-118; 
Vogtland  and  Saxon  Erzgebirge, 
118-119;  Sudetes,  119-120;  Upper 
Silesia,  120;  railways,  120-122; 
waterways,  122-123;  general  con- 
siderations, 123-125 ;  foreign  trade, 
125-127 

Gezira,  316.  317 

Ghats,   Eastern,   220 

Western,  220,  222,  233-235 

Ghent,  95,  96,  97 
Ghent-Bruges  Canal,  96 
Ghevgheh,  158 

Giaour,  Dagh.  210 
Gibraltar,  182 
Gida,   161 
Gijon,  176,  182 


Gilan,  215 

Gileppe  dam,  94 

Ginger,  20 

Ginseng,  275,  280 

Girardot,  458 

Giridih,  242 

Gisors,  86 

Glamorgan,  60,  61 

Glarus.  134 

Glasgow,  46,  47,  71 

Glass.     Belguim,  93  ;  Germany,  109 , 
Austria,  138  ;    U.S..  414 

Glauchau,  118,  119 

Gleiwitz.   120 

Glommen  Valley,  76 

Gloucester,  401 

Goa,  244 

Goats.     Cape  Colony,  327 ;    Orange 
Free  State,  330  ;    Transvaal,  331 

Gobi  Desert,  197,  277 

Gogebic  Range,  412 

Gold.  Siberia,  204,205;  India,  241 
Transvaal,  332  ;  S.  Rhodesia,  335 
Canada,  391,  393;  U.S.,  424,  428 
430  ;  Mexico,  438  ;  Colombia,  457 
BoUvia,  463-464;  Australia,  500 
501,503,  504,  506,  509,  511-512 
New  Zealand,  520.  521,  522 

Coast,  342-343 

Goldfield,  (Nev.),  427 

Range,  363,  389 

Gomor,  145 
Gondokoro,  318 
Goole,  63,  71 
Gossypium,  21 
Gotha,  121 
Goulburn,  505 

,  R.,  506 

Goyaz,  475 

Goz  Abu  Guma,  318 

Graaf  Reinet,  327 

Grabow.  117 

Granada,  177 

Gran  Chaco.  448,  480 

Grand  Falls,  377 

Forks,  391,  410,  432 

Grangesberg  ore  field,  75 

Grantham,  62 

Graphite,  248 

Grassland,  16 

Great  Basin.  363,  374,  426-427 

Lakes.  394.  407,  435 

Plain  of  China,  256,  260 

Plateaus  (U.S.),  363,  374,  422- 

423 
Valleys.     Tone  of ,  in  Germany 

115 
Appalachian  Valley.  362,  404, 

407,  420,  421 


542 


INDEX 


Greece,  159-160;  Plains  of  Thessaly, 
159;  Central  Greece,  160;  Morea, 
160;  Ionian  Isles,  160;  Cyclades, 
160 ;  commerce,   160 

Greenbushes,  512 

Green  Hills,  362 

Greenock,  47 

Greenville,  421 

Grenada,  444 

Grenoble,  84 

Greymouth,  521 

Greytown,  442 

Grimsby,  43.  63,  71 

Griqualand  West,  326,  328 

Groningen,  99 

Grozny,   190 

Guadalquivir  basin,  174,   175 

Guajara-Mirim,  461 

Guatemala,  440 

Guayaquil,  459 

Guiana  Colonies,  478 

Highland,  454,  470 

(Upper)  Plateau  299 

French,  347 

Guipuzcoa,   176 
Gurgan,  216 

Gyantse,  277 
Gympie,  501,  502 

Haardt,  103,   107 

Haarlem,  100 

Habichts-Wald,  113 

Haddington  coalfield,  45 

Hagen,  112 

Hague,  The,  101 

Haida,  138 

Haidar  Pasha,  213 

Haifa,  211,  213 

Hainaut,  95 

Haiphong,  255,  273 

Haiti,  444 

Hakodate,  284 

Halifax,  51,  52 

,  Nova  Scotia,    378,    381,    394, 

398 
Hall,   109 
Halle.  121 
Hama.  211 

Hamada-el-Homra  plateau,  310 
Hamadan.  217.  218 
Hamburg.  118.  121,  127,   150 
Hameln.   123 
Hami.  277 
Hamilton,  Orange  Free  State,  337 ; 

Ontario,  383;   river,  377 
Hamites,  303 
Hamm.  121 
Hampshire  Basin.  64 
Han,  R.,  269;    Basin,  265 


Hanau,  109 

Hancornia  speciosa,   18 
Hangchow,  271 
Hankow,  264,  266,  268,  269 
Hanoi.  255 

Hanover,  32,  121 

Hanyang.  268  ;    ironworks,'  268 

Harbin.  206.  276 

Harirud.  219 

Harrisburg,  432 

Hartlepool.  50 

Harwich.  71 

Harz  Mts..   105 

Hashab,  316 

Havana,  443 

Havel  Canal,  123 

Haverhill,  403 

Havre,  86,  87,  88,  91 

Hawaiian  Islands,  525 

Hawick,  48 

Hawke  Bay,  523 

Hay,  505 

Hebrides,  34 

Heckmondwike,  52 

Heilbronn.  109,  122 

Hejaz,  213 

Helena,  433 

Hellgate,  R.,  433 

Helmand,  R.,  219 

Helsingfors,  185,  191 

Hemp,  25 

Henequen,  439 

Hengelo,  101 

Herat,  219 

Herberton,  502 

Hereford,  59 

Heme,  122 

Hertford.  63 

Herzegovina.  141 

Hesbaye,  loam  of.  92 

Hessian  Uplands.  105.  113 

Hevea.  17.  18.  248.  293,  344,  470 

High  Wycombe,  62 

Himalayas,  196,  220.  224,  227,   228 

Hindu  Rush,  195,  219 

Hirson.  87,  96 

Hispaniola,  444 

Hit,  211 

Hobart,  514 

Hodeida,  213 

Hohenheim,   125 

Hohe  Tauern,  149 

Hokitika.  521 

Hokkaido,  281,  283,  284-285 

Holcus  Sorghum,  21 A 

Holland,  30,  99-102;  physical  fea- 
tures, 99  ;  climate,  99-100  ;  Alluvial 
Region,  100-101  ;  Diluvial  Region, 
101  ;    railways,   101 


INDEX 


543 


Homburg,  110 

Homestead,  408 

Horns,  213 

Honan,  256,  260 

Honda,  458  ;    rapids,  458 

Honduras,  441,  442 

Hongay,  254 

Honshiu,  281,  283,  285-289 

Hook  of  Holland,   101.   121 

Horgen,  134 

Hottentots,  303 

Howrah,  243 

Hrastnig,   140 

Hua  Hin,  252 

Huancavelica,  464 

Huancayo,  464 

Huaqui,  461 

Huddersfield,  51 

Hudson  Bay  Railway,  396 

,  R.,  362,  407,  432  435  ;  Valley, 

409 
Hue,  254 
Huelva,   178,   182 
Hull,  63,  71 

,  Canada,  377 

Humboldt,  R.,  433 

Humidity,   13 

Hunan,  265-270 

Hungshan,  262 

Hunsriick,   103,   110 

Hunter,  R.,  504 

Hupeh,  265-270 

Hwai,  R.,  270 

Hwaiyang-shan,.  264 

Hwang-ho  Basin,  256-258,  260-265 

Hyderabad,  233,  235,  236,  237,  243 

Hygrophytes,  15 


Iberian  Peninsula,  29,  174-182; 
physical  features,  174 ;  climate, 
174-175  ;  natural  regions,  175  ; 
Spain,  175-180;  Portugal,  180- 
181  ;    communications,  182 

Ibrahimieh  Canal,  315 

Ichang,  268,  269 

Ichim  Steppes,  202 

Idaho,  424-426 

Idria,  140 

Ilex  paragtcensis,  479 

Hi,  R.,  206;  valley,  276 

Illawarra  coalfield,  504 

Illinois,  409-415,  435 

Imaichi,  290 

Immingham,  63 

India,  220-248 ;  physical  features, 
220-221  ;  climate,  221-224  ;  veg- 
etation, 224-225 ;  people,  225- 
226  ;     natural    regions,    227-228  ; 


India  {cont.) — 

Himalayan  Region,  228  ;  North- 
west borderland,  228-229  ;  Ganges 
Plain,  229-231  ;  Indus  Plain.  231- 
233  ;  West-coast  Region,  233-235  ; 
Black  soil  Region.  235-236  ;  North- 
East  Deccan,  236-237  ;  Southern 
Deccan,  237  ;  East-coast,  Region, 
237-238 ;  Burma,        238-240 ; 

manufactures,  240-241  ;  minerals, 
241-243 ;  communications,  243' 
244  ;   commerce,  244-247 

Indiana,  409-415 

Indianopolis,  412 

Indo-Aryan  people,  225 

Indo-China,  249-255 

Indo-Gangetic  Plain,  220,  227  ;  soil, 
221 

Indus  Plain,  198,  224,  227,  231-233 

Inshan  Mts.,  196,  256 

Inn,  R.,  106  ;   Valley,  139,  149 

Innerleithen,  48 

Innsbruck,  149 

Insterburg,  122 

Invercargill,  521 

Inverness,  42 

,  Nova  Scotia,  coalfield,  380 

Ionian  Isles,  159 

Iowa,  409-415 

Ipswich  (Queensland),  501 

Iquique,  466 

Iquitos,  464,  476 

Iran  Plateau,  195 

Ireland,  29,  36,  42,  65-68  ;  Northern 
Region,  36,  42,  65-67;  Central 
Plain,  36,  42, 67 ;  Southern 
Region,  36,  42,  67-68 

Irkutsk,  206 

Iron  and  Steel  Manufactures.  Scot- 
land, 46;  England,  50,  52,  55, 
58,  60-61  ;  France,  80,  84,  85,  86  ; 
Belgium,  93;  Germany,  110, 
111,  112,  120;  Austria,  138, 
139,  140  ;  Italy,  167  ;  Spain,  176  ; 
Russia,  187.  190.  191  ;  China, 
268 ;  Japan,  285,  288 ;  Canada, 
383;    U.S.,  403,  407.  413-414,  421 

ore.     Scotland.  46;    England, 

50,  56,  62  ;  Norway,  74  ;  Sweden, 
75-76  ;  France,  80,  84  ;  Germany, 
108,  110,  120;  Austria,  137,  139, 
140  ;  Hungary.  145  ;  Italy.  164  ; 
Spain.  52,  176.  178  ;  Russia,  187, 
189-190,  191;  Siberia,  204; 
China,  267  ;  Canada,  377,  380  ; 
Newfoundland,  399;  U.S.,  413. 
420-421  ;  Mexico,  439 ;  West 
Indies,  443 ;  Venezuela,  455  ; 
Brazil,  476 


544 


INDEX 


Iron  Gates,  143 

Irrawaddy.  238,  239 

Irrigation.  Italy,  165  ;  Spain,  177  ; 
Messopotamia,  211-212;  Persia, 
216;  India,  229,  231-232;  China, 
265 ;  Algeria,  308 ;  Egypt,  313- 
314  ;  Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan,  317  ; 
Australia,  496.  506,  509 

Irtysh,  R.,  205;      Basin.  198 

Irvine,    44 

Isar,  R.,  106 

Iserlohn,   112 

Isfahan,  216,  217,  218 

Ishikari  Valley,  284 

Isker  Valley,  161 

Ismailia,  315 

Isonzo,   149 

Istria,  141 

Itabirite,  476 

Italy,  162-173;  physical  features, 
162-163;  climate,  163-164;  Al- 
pine Zone,  164  ;  Plains  of  Po,  164- 
167;  Peninsular  Italy,  167-170; 
Sicily,  170;  Elba,  170;  Sardinia, 
1 70 ;  communications,  171-172; 
commerce,   172-173 

Itapura,  477 

Ivory  coast,  French,  347 

Jaffa,  210.  211,  213 

Jagerndorf,  139 

Jagersfontein,  330 

Jamaica,  443-444 

James,  R..  362,  433 

Japan,  281-291;  physical  features, 
281-282;  climate,  282-283 ;  vege- 
tation, 283  ;  natural  regions,  283  ; 
general  considerations,  284  ;  Nok- 
kaido,  284-285  ;  Honshiu,  Shikoku 
and  Kiushiu.  285-289;  Industry, 
287-289 ;  Formosa,  289  ;  com- 
munications, 289-290 ;  commerce, 
290-291  ;   ports,  291 

J  assy,   152 

Java,   196,  292-293 

Jedburgh,  48 

Jefdra,  310 

JelUco  coalfield.  420 

Jemsa,  315 

Jerez,   177 

Jersey  City,  409,  414 

Jerusalem,  213 

Jherria,  242 

Jibuti,  319,  320 

Jidda.  213 

Jinja.  319 

Johannesburg,  331,  337 

Johor,  249 

Jonkoping,  77 


Jordan,  R.,  210 

Juar,  23 

Jubaland,  322 

Jubbulpore,  236,  243 

Judaea,  210 

Jujuy,  488 

Julfa,  218 

Julian  Alps,   149 

Juneau,  430 

Juniata  Valley,  432 

Jute,  20;    India,  230,  241 

Kabul,  219 

Kabylia,  308 

Kachin  Hills.  238 

Kaffirs.  304 

Kaffyfontein.  330 

Kafue  Valley,  336 

Kagera,  R.,  311 

Kaikowra  Chain,  516 

Kailan  Mining  Administration,  262 

Kainit,   114 

Kaiping,  262 

Kaiser- Wilhelm  Ship  Canal,  123 

Kakindu,  319 

Kalahari  desert.  333 

Kalgan,  206,  263,  264,  278 

Kalgoorlie,  511,  512 

Kalkid  Plains,  208 

Kamaishi  Mines,  287 

Kamchatka,  205 

Kamloops,  390,  392 

Kanawha,  R.,  405 

Kanazawa,  288 

Kanchow,  267 

Kandahar,  219 

Kan-kiang,  269 

Kansas,  409-415 

City,  412,  433,  434 

Kansu,  260 

Kapunda,  509 

Karachi,  233,  243,  245 

Karalik-Derven,  161 

Karawanken  Alps,   149 

Karibib,  340 

Karlsbad,   138 

Karlsruhe,   121,   125 

Karroo,  326 

Karun,  R.,  217 

Kasan,   183 

Kashan,  216,  217 

Kashgar,  264,  276,  277 

Kashgaria,  276 

Kashniir,  228,  241 

Kassaba,  209 

Katanga,  335,  336,  351,  352-353 

Kathiawar,  235 

Kattowitz,  120 

Kauri.  521 


INDEX 


545 


Kavalla,  158 
Kawamata,  288 
Kazungula,  336 
Keda,  249 
Keetmanshoop,  340 
Keighley,  52 
Kelantan,  249 
Kelung,  289.  290 
Kent,  63 

Kentucky,  418-420 
Kerkrade  coalfield,   101 
Kerman.  217,  218 
Kermanshah,  218 
Kerry,  68 
Kertch,  189 
Keshef-rud,  216 
Kettering,  62 
Kharkov,   189 
Khartum,  316,  318 
Khasi  Hills,  244 
Kherson,  188 
Khewra,  242 
Khingan  Mts.,  196 
Khiva,  206,  207 
Khorasan,  216 
Khotan,  276 
Kiakhta,  206,  263,  278 
Kiangsi,  265-270 
Kiangsu,  256,  265-270 
Kiaochow  Bay,  264 
Kicking  Horse  Pass,  394 
Kidderminster,  58 
Kiel,    123 
Kiev,  183 
Kii  Peninsula,  281 
Kilimanjaro  Mts,,  323 
Kilkenny,  68 
Kimberley,  328,  336,  337 
Kinai  Plain,  281 
Kingtehchen,  268 
Kioga  Lake,  319 
Kirghiz  Tribes,  203 
Kirkcaldy,  47 
Kirkcudbright,  48 
Kirk-Kilisse,  158 
Kirthar  Range,  220 
Kirunavara,  75 
Kitakami  Plain,  281 
Kiushiu,  281,  283,  285-289 
Kizil  Plain,  208 
Kladno,  137,  138 
Klagenfurt,    140 
Knoxville,  421,  433 
Kobe,  288,  290,  291 
Kochendorf,  109 
Kochiu,  272 
Koflach,  140 
Kolar  Goldfield,  242 
Komati  Poort.  332 


Kongmoon,  273 

Kongsberg,  74 

Konia,  213 

Konigsberg,  122,  128 

Konigshof,  138 

Konigshiitte,  120 

Kootenay  District,  391,  393;    river, 

389,  433 
Kopais,  Lake,  160 
Kopet  Dagh,  195,  214,  215 
Korat,  250,  251,  252 
Kordofan,  317 

Kurdistan,  214,  216  ;  highlands,  195 
Korea,  199,  279-280 
Kosel,  123 
Kotlas,  205 
Kowloon,  273 
Kow  Swamp,  506 
Krasnovodsk,  207 
Krivoi  Rog,  189 
Kroonstad,  337 
Krusnahora,  137 
Kuban,  188 
Kuldja,  277 
Kumasi,  343 
Kura,  195 
Kurgan,  203 
Kuriles,  282 
Kuro  Siwo,  282 
Kushiro,  285 
Kushk.  207 
Kusnetz,  204 
Kwangchow-wan,  273 
Kwangsi,  271 
Kwangtung,  271 
Kwanto  Plain,  281 
Kweichow,  271 
Kweihwacheng,  263 
Kwen-lun  Mts.,  196 
Kwitta,  342 
Kwolla,  319 
Kyoto,  281.  290 

Laaland,  129 

Lachute.  377 

La  Dorada,  458 

Ladysmith,  337 

Lagos,  343,  344 

La  Guaira,  456 

Laguna,  438 

Lahore,  233,  243 

Lamone.  172 

Lanarkshire  coalfield,  44 

Lancashire,   Industrial  Region,    53- 

6  •   coalfield,  35,  53  ;  iron  ore,  52 
Lanchow.  262,  263,  264,  277 
Landes.  81,  82 
Landeshut,  119 
Landolphia,  18 


546 


INDEX 


Langebergen,  326 

Langenbielau,  119,  120 

Langson,  255 

Laokai,  255 

Laos  Territory,  252,  253 

La  Pampa,  484-6 

La  Paz,  462 

La  Plata,  488 

LaQuiaca,  461,  488 

Laraiche.   306 

Larissa,  161 

Laristan,  214,  216 

La  Rochelle,  89 

La  Serena,  468 

Lashio,  244 

Lauderdale,  337 

Launceston,  514 

Laurentian  Plateau,  361,  372,  376-8 

Laurium,  160 

Lausanne,  135 

Laval,  81,  88 

Laverton,  513 

Lawrence,  402 

Lead.    Austria,    140 ;     Spain,    178  ; 

United    States,     422,    424,    425, 

427 
Leadville,  425 
Lealui,  336 
Lebanon,  210 
Leeds,  51,  52 
Leeward  Islands,  444 
Leghorn,  169 

Leicester,  52,  59  ;    coalfield,  59 
Leipzig,  117,  121 
Leith,  71 
Leixoes,  181 
Lek,  102 
Lemberg,  149 
Lena  R.,  205 
Leoben,  140 
Leon,  176,  182 
Lesitz,  138 
Lethbridge,  387 
Leyte,  294 
Lhasa,  264,  277 
Liao  R.,  274,  275 
Libau,  186 
Liberia,  349 
Liege,  93,  96 
Likiang,  269 
Lille,  86,  87,  96 
Lillooet,  391 
Limburg,  99 
Limerick,  68 
Limoges,  80 
Linares,  178,  182 
Lincoln,  52,  62,  63 
Lincolnshire  and  Yorkshire  Wolds,  36 
Linen  Manufacture.     Scotland,  47  ; 


Ireland,  66;  Belgium,  95;  Ger- 
many, 113,  119;  Austria,  139 

Lingah,  217 

Lin  Kong  How,  273 

Linlithgow  coalfield,  44 

Linseed,  25 

Linz,  121 

Lisbon,  181,  182 

Lithgow,  504 

Lithographic  Stones,  108 

Liverpool,  55,  71 

Livonia,  185 

Llama,  463 

Llanelly,  60 

Loangwa  Valley,  336 

Locle,  134 

Loddon  R.,  506 

Lodz,  187 

Lofoten  Islands,  74 

Logwood,  20 

Lohne,  121 

Loire  R.,  89 

Lombardy,  165,  166 

Lombok,  292 

London,  64,  71;  Basin,  63,  64; 
clay,  64 

Londonderry,  66  ;    Nova  Scotia,  380 

Longwy,  84 

Lo  Basin,  261 

Loess,  260-261 

Loredo,  440 

Lorient,  81 

Lorraine,  86,  97,  110 

Los  Andes,  488 

Los  Angeles,  434 

Lotschb  erg  Tunnel,  135 

Louisbourg,  380 

Louisiana,  415-419 

Lourenfo  Marques,  332,  337,  338 

Louvain,  96 

Louviers,  86 

Low  Countries,  29,  100-2 

Lowell,  402 

Luang  Prabang,  252 

Liibeck,  118,  122,  123 

Liideritzort,  340 

Ludwigshafen,  107 

Lugano,  171 

Lugau,  118 

Lugo,  176 

Lulea,  76 

Liineburg  Heath,  115 

Luxemburg,  Duchy  of,  93  ;  province 
of,  93  ;   town,  96 

Luzon,  294,  295 

Lye,  58 

Lynn,  403 

Canal,  393 

Lyons,  83,  88 


INDEX 


547 


Lys  R.,  89.  95,  96 
Lyttelton,  520 

Ma  AS  R.,  102 

Maastricht,  101 

Macao,  273 

Macassar,  294 

Macedonia,   154,   157-9 

Machakos,  321 

Mackay,  501,  502 

McKeesport,   408 

Macon,  88 

Madeira-Mamore  railway,  477 

Madras,  238,  243,  244 

Madrid,  175,  177 

Madura,  292 

Maeander  R.,  209 

Mafeking,  337 

Maffra,  507 

Magallanes,  468 

Magdalena  Valley,  456,  457  ;  river, 
457 

Magdeburg,  121 

Maggiore,  Lake,  171 

Mahogany,  20 

Mahrisch-Ostrau,  138 

Main  R.,  122  ;  basin,  105  ;  valley,  109 

Main-Rhine  Canal,  111 

Maine,  400-403 

Maize,  33  ;  France,  8 1  ;  Hungary, 
146  ;  Italy,  165  ;  Roumania,  152  ; 
Servia,  156 ;  Tongking,  254  ; 
United  States,  411-412,  416;  Ar- 
gentine, 485  ;    Australia,  501 

Majerda  Valley,  309 

Makran,  228 

Malabar,  222 

Malacca,  249 

Malaga,  177,  178,  182 

Malay  Peninsula,  249  ;  States  (Siam), 
251;    Archipelago,  292-295 

Mallee,  506 

Malmo,  76 

Malwa  Plateau,  235,  236 

Manaos,  471 

Manchester,  55,  71  ;  New  England, 
402 

Manchuria,  26,  274-276 

Mandalay,  239,  244 

Mangabeira,  18,  471,  472 

Mangalore,  244 

"  Manicoba,"  18 

Manihot  Glaziovii,  18,  471,  472 

Manila,  295 

hemp,  20,  294 

Manipur  Hills,  238 

Manitoba,  383-388 

Mannheim,  107,  122 

Mantua,  171 


Manzanillo,  440 
Maoris,  517 
Marches,  163,  168 
Maremma,   168 

Maritime  Provinces,  372,  378-381 
Maritza  Valley,  159,  161 
Mariupol,   190 
Mark  Waterways,  123 
Marlborough  Downs,  36 
Marne  R.,  89,  96  ;  valley,  86 
Maromme,  86 
Marostica,  167 
Marquette,  413 
Marrakesh,  306 
tj^arseilles,  80,  83.  84.  88.  91 
Martinique,  444 
Maryport.  56 
Mashonaland.   334-335 
Massachusetts,  400-403 
Massowa,   320 
Matabililand,  334-335 
Matabili-Mashona  plateau,  325 
Matto  Grosso,  475-6 
Maryland,  403-10 
Maubeuge,  87.  96 
Mauritius.  356-357 
Mazanderan,  215 
Meadow.  17 
Meat  Products     United  States.  412  ; 

Paraguay.    479  ;     Uruguay.    481  ; 

New  Zealand,  520 
Mecca,  213 
Mechlin,  96 
Mecklenburg,  114,  116 
Medicine  Hat,  383,  394 
Medina,  213 
Mediterranean  States  (Africa),  300, 

302,  305-10 
Meerane,  118,  119 
Meiling  Pass,  269 
Meissen,  119 
Meissner,  113 
Mekong  R.,  255 
Melbourne,  507,  508 
Melnik.  148 
Memel.  128 

MenamBasin,  250.  251 
Mendoza,  486,  487 
Mengtze,  273 
Menominee  Range,  413 
Meppen,  122 
Merrimac  R..  402 
Merthyr-Tydiil,  60 
Meru  Forts,  323 
Merv,  207 
Merwede  R.,  102 
Mesabi  Range,  413 
Meshed,  216.  218 
Meshediser,  215 


548 


INDEX 


Mesopotamia,  211-212;  railways , 
213 

Messina,  170 

Methil,  45 

Metz,  96,  121 

Meurthe-et-Moselle,   84 

Meuse,  84,  89.  96 

Mexico,  436-440  ;  physical  features, 
364,  436;  climate,  364-368,  436- 
437  ;  Tierra  caliente,  437  ;  Tierra 
templada,  437-438;  Tierra  fria, 
438-439  ;  manufactures,  439  ;  rail- 
ways, 439-440 

City,  440 

Michigan,  409-415 

Michipicoten,  377 

Middleburg,  337 

Middlesboro  Coal  Basin,  420 

Middlesbrough,  50 

Middlewich,  57 

Milan,  166,  167,  171 

Mildura.  506,  508 

Milk  R.,  387,  433 

Millet,  23 

Millom,  56 

Milwaukee,  411,413,  435 

Mimusops  Balata,  455 

Min  R.,  270  ;   valley,  182 

Minas  Gerdes,  474,  475-476 

Mindanao,  294 

Minden,  113 

Minerals,  2-3 

Minneapolis,  394,  411 

Minnesota,  409-415 

Mino-Owari  Plain,  281 

Minussinsk,  204,  205 

Mir,  188 

Miranda  de  Ebro,  182 

Misiones,  482 

Mississippi,  415-419  ;    river,  435 

Missouri,  409-415,  417,  421-422; 
Coteau,  383  ;    river,  433 

Mistek,   139 

Mistral,  78 

Mitrovica,  150,  161 

Mittelgebirge,  136 

Mitylene,  208,  209 

Miye,  288 

Mlanje,  337 

Mobile,  419 

Mochi,  323 

Mogadishu,  320 

Mogador,  306 

Mohair,  209 

Mohammerah,  218 

Mohave  Desert,  434 

Mohawk  R.,  407,  432,  435 

Moji.  291 

Moldau-Elbe.  148 


Moldavian  Plateau,  151,  152 

Moline,  414 

Mollendo,  461,  464 

Moluccas,  292,  294 

Mombasa,  319,  321,  322 

Mombo,  323 

Monastir,  154,  158,  161 

Monazite  Sands,  473 

Moncton,    395 

Mongalla,  316 

MongoUa,  277-278,  279  ;  plateau,  196 

Mongol  Peoples,  226 

Mongolo-Dravidian  People,  226 

Monmouth,  59,  60 

Monongahela  R.,  407 

Mons,  93,  94,  96 

Monsoons,  11 

Montana,  422,  424-425 

Mont  Cenis  tunnel,  88,  171 

Monte  Ferru,  170 

Montenegro,  154 

Monterey,  439 

Montevideo,  477 

Montlu9on,  80 

Montmorency  Falls,  382 

Montreal,   380,   381,   382,   383,   395, 

396,  397,  399 
Montserrat,  444 
Monza,  166 
Moonta,  509 
Morava  Valley,  156,  161 

,  Western,  156 

Moravian  Gate,  149 

Morea,  159 

Morgan,  510 

Morley,  51 

Mormugao  Harbour,  244 

Morocco,  305-307  ;  physical  features, 

305  ;  climate,  306  ;    coastal  plains, 

306  ;    Meseta,    306  ;     communica- 
tions, 307  ;    trade,  307 

Morphological  processes,  4-5 

Morvan,  80 

Moscow,  186,  187  ;  industrial  region, 

186-187 
Moselle  R.,  84,  89,  122;    valley,  110 
Mosul.  212,  213 
Motherwell,  46 
Moulmein.  240,  250 
Mount  Bischoff,  514 

Egmont,  522,  523 

Gambler,  508.  510 

Lyell,  513 

Margaret  goldfield,   511.   512 

Morgan,  501,  502 

Mozambique,  339  ;    company,  339 
Muirkirk,  46 

Mukden,  263,  264,  275,  276 
Miilhausen.  88.    107 


INDEX 


549 


Miilheim,    112 
Mullan's  Pass,  433 
Multan,  233,  243,  257 
Munich,  106,  121 
Miinchen-Gladbach,  112 
Miinster,    115,   117 

"  Bay,"  117 

Murchison  (East)  goldfields,  511 
Murcia,  53 
Murghab   R.,  207 
Murgie,  163,  170 
Muroran,  285 
Murray  R.,  505,  506,  508 
Murrumbidgee  R.,  505 
Mur-thal,    149 
Miirz-thal,   149 
Musa  Textilis,  294 
Muschelkalk,   108 
Myitkyina,  239,  244 
Myrotylon  Pereirae,  441 
Myslowitz,   120 
Mysore,  237,  242,  244 
Mytho,  255 

Naauwpoort,  337 

Naga  Hills,  196,  238 

Nagasaki,  288,  291 

Nagpur,  236,  244 

Nakon  Sritamarat,  251 

Namur,  88,  93,  96 

Nanaimo,  392,  393 

Nancy,  84,  88,  121 

Nanking,  265,  269,  270 

Nankou  Pass,  263 

Nantes,  81,  88,  89 

Naples,  169 

Narbonne,   88 

Narva,  185 

Narvik,  76 

Nashville  Basin,  420 

Natal,  325,  328-329  ;  physical  fea- 
tures, 328  ;  cUmate,  328  ;  natural 
regions,  328-329 

Naurouse,  88 

Naxos,  160 

Nazas  R.,  438 

Neath,  60 

Nebraska,  409-415,  422 

NeckerR.,  122;   basin,  104,  108-10 

Nedd  Valley,  60 

Negapatam,  238 

Negri  Sembilan,  249 

Negros,  294,  295 

Nejd,  212 

Nelson,  54  ;    B.C.,  393 

Ner  R.,  115 

Nera  R.,  168.  172 

Netze  R.,  115.  123;   valley,  116 

Neuquen,  488 


Neva  R.,  191 

Nevada,  426-7 

Newark,  408,  409 

New  Brunswick,  378-381 

New  Caledonia,  158,  525 

Newcastle,  50,  71;  Natal,  329; 
N.S.W.,  504 

Newchwang,  264,  275,  276 

New  England,  273,  362,  400-3 

Newfoundland,  380,  399 

Newhaven,  63.  71 

New  Jersey,  403-410 

New  Mexico,  424-5 

New  Orleans,  419.  432,  433,  434 

New  Plymouth,  522 

Newport,  60 

New  South  Wales,  497,  502-5 

New  Westminster,  391,  393 

New  York  City,  405,  407,  408,  409, 
412,  414,  432  ;  State,  403-410 

New    Zealand,    516-525;     physical 
features,  516;    climate,  516-518 
vegetation,  518;   population,  518- 
9;        South       Island,       519-21 
North  Island,   521-3 ;    communi 
cations,  523 ;    commerce,   523-5 
statistics,  525 

flax,  521 

Niagara  R.,  435 

Nicaragua,  442 

Nice,  78 

Nickel,  377 

Nicobar  Islands,  196 

Niemen  R.,  191 

"  Nieuwe  Waterweg,"  102 

Nieuwveld,  326 

Niger    R.,    343,  344,  346,  348 

Nigeria,  343-346  ;  physical  features, 
343;  climate,  343-344;  natural 
regions,  344-346 ;  communica- 
tions, 346;    trade,  346 

Niigata,  290 

Nikolaiev,  190 

Nikopol,  190 

Nile  Basin,  311-319;  valley  and 
delta,  312-315 

Nilgiris,  234 

Nimes,  88 

Nimmitabel,  505 

Ningpo,  271 

Niort,  89 

Nipissing,  Lake,  397 

Niriz,   216 

Nish  R..  161 

Nishava  Valley,  161 

Nitrate  of  soda,  Chile,  466-467 

Nivelles,  95 

Norberg  ore  field,  75 

Norfolk.  63  ;   United  States.  405 


550 


INDEX 


Norrkoping,  76 

Norrland,  75 

Norseman,  513 

North  America,  361-441  ;  physical 
features,  361-364;  climate,  364- 
368  ;  vegetation,  368-371  ;  natural 
regions,  371-375;  Canada,  376- 
399  ;  Newfoundland,  399  ;  United 
States,  400-435;  Mexico,  436- 
440 

Northampton,  52,  62 

North  Carolina,  415-9 

Dakota,  409-15,  422 

Northern  Territory  of  Australia, 
508-10 

North  Sea  Canal  (Neth.).  102 

Northumberland  and  Durham  coal- 
field, 35,  49 

Northwich,  57 

Norway,  72,  73-4 

Norwich,  63 

Notodden,  74 

Novara,  171 

Nova  Scotia,  378-381 

Novgorod,  185 

Novi-Bazar,  149,  150 

Nucic,  137 

NuUabor  Plains,  494,  512 

Nuremberg,  109,  121 

Nushki,  218 

Nyasa  Company,  339;  Lake,  299, 
337-338 

Nyasaland,  337-338 

Nyika,  320,  322,  337 

Nymphenburg,  106 

Oats,  33 

Ob  R.,  205  ;  basin,  198 

Oberhausen,  121 

Obra  R.,  115 

Ocean  currents,  11-12 

Odenwald,  107 

Oder  R.,  115,  123 

Oder-Spree  canal,  123 

Oder  Swamp,  116 

Odessa,  190,  191 

Ogden,  433,  434 

Ohio,  409-15 

Okanagan,  391 

Okayama,  288 

Oklahoma,  417-419,  421-2 

Olsnitz,  118 

Oil  Shale,  45 

Oise  R.,  89,  96 

Oissel,  86 

Oka  R.,  186 

Oldenzaal,  101 

Oldham,  54 

Olekminsk,  205 


Olives,  33;  France,  82-3;  Italy, 
164,  168-70;  Anatolia,  209; 
Algeria,  308 

Olonetz,  185 

Omaha,  433 

Ombrone  R.,  172 

Omdurman,  319 

Omsk,  192.  203,  206 

Oneida  R.,  435  ;   Lake,  435 

Ontario,  381-383 

Oodnadatta,  508,  510 

Ookiep  Mines,  328 

Oolitic  Escarpment,  35 

Opium.  Persia,  216;  India,  236; 
China,  261,  266,  272;    Manchuria, 

Oporto,  180,  181,  182  [275 

Oppeln,  120 

Oran,  309 

Orange  Free  State,  325,  329-330 

Ordos  Plateau,  256 

Oregon,   425-6 

Orenburg,  188,  192,  207 

Orinoco  Basin,  447 

Orissa,    236 

Orizaba,  439 

Orleans,  86 

Oroya,  464 

Oruro,  461,  469 

Osaka,  281,  288,  291 

Oslawan,  138 

Osnabriick,  113 

Ostend.  96,  97,  121 

Osterwald,  113 

Ostriches,  327 

Otago  Peneplain,  516,  517,  520-21 

Otaru,  285 

Ottawa.  381,  382;    river,  397 

Oudtshoorn,  327 

Overyssel,  99,  101 

Oviedo,  176 

Oxus,  219 

Ozark  Uplift,  363,  421-2 

Pacific,  Islands  of,  525 

Padang,  293 

Paderno.  166 

Padua.  171 

Pahang,  249 

Paisley,  47 

Paknampo,  250 

Palatinate,  Upper,  109 

Palembang,  293 

Palermo,  170 

Palghat,  244 

Palmerston,  510 

Palm  Oil,  W.  Africa,  342,  344,  347, 

349,  350,  352,  354 
Pamirs,  195 
Pampa,  448,  484-6 


INDEX 


551 


Pamphylia,  208 

Panama,  441,442;  canal,  434,  442 

Panax  ginseng,  275 

Panay,  294,  295 

Pancorbo  Pass,  182 

Panjnad,  228 

Para    47 1 

Paraguay,  479-480;    river,  487 

Parana  R.,  487 

Paris,  87,  88,  89  ;    basin  of,  84-6 

Pas,  The,  395 

Pasco,  433 

Pasqua,  394 

Passaic  R.,  408 

Passau,  148 

Patagonia,  447,  448,  486 

Patani,  251 

Paterson,  408 

Patna,  231 

Pauillac,  82 

Paunglaung  Range,  238 

Paysandu,  481,  488 

Peace  Basin,  391 

Peebles,  48 

Pegu  TomaMts.,  238 

Pei-ho,  263 

Pei-kiang,  269 

Peilau,  120 

Pekin,  263,  264 

Syndicate,  262,  264 

Pemba,  324 

Pembroke,  59,  60,  61 

Penang,  249 

Pennisetum  typhoideum,  23 

Pennsylvania,  403-10 

Pentelikon,  160 

Pepper,  20 

Perak,  249 

Perm,   191 

Pernambuco,  474 

Pernau,  186 

Pemik,  156 

Perpignan,  88,  182 

Persia,  214-219  ;  physical  features, 
195,  214;  climate,  199,  214; 
natural  regions,  214;  Armenian 
Knot,  214-215;  Northern  Pro- 
vinces, 215 ;  North  Khorasan, 
215-216;  South-western  moun- 
tains, 216 ;  Central  Plain,  216-217  ; 
Central  Ranges,  217;  Eastern 
districts,  217;  Gulf  Coast,  217; 
communications,  217-218 ;  com- 
merce, 218-219 

Perth,  512,  513 

Peru,  462-465  ;  coastal  region.  462- 
463  ;  Andine  zone,  463-464  ;  Mon- 
tana, 464 ;  communications,  464- 
465  ;    commerce,  465 


Peshawar,  243 

Peterswaldau,  120 

Peterwardein,  149 

Petroleum.  Austria,  142 ;  Rouma- 
nia,  151;  Russia,  190;  India, 
239,  242;  Egypt,  315;  United 
States,  413,  428  ;  Colombia,  457 

Petropavlovsk,  203 

Pforzheim,  109 

Phantiet,  255 

Philadelphia,  405,  406,  407,  408,  432 

Philippeville,  309 

Philippine   Islands,   292,   294-295 

Philippopolis,  155,  161,  179 

Phihstia  Plain,  210 

Phillips  River  goldfield,  512 

Phlegraean  Fields,  163 

Phormmm  tenax,  521 

Phre,  252 

Phylloxera,  82,  144 

Piacenza,  171 

Phytelephas  macrocarpa,  459 

Pictou  coalfield,  380 

Piedmont,  165,  166 

Plateau,  361,  404,  420-21 

Pietermaritzburg,  328 

Pietersburg,  337 

Pilbara,  West,  goldfield,  512 

Pilgrim's  Rest,  331 

Pillau,  128 

Pilsen,  137,  138 

Pine  Creek,  410 

Pinghsiang,  267 

Ping  'ting  'chou,  262 

Pintados,  468 

Piraeus,  160 

Pisa,    172 

Pistoja,  172 

Pitsani,  331 

Pittsburg,  408,  409,  432;  coalfield. 
405 

Plasencia,  182 

Platinum,  191 

Plauer  Canal,  123 

Plymouth,  61 

Pnom-penh,  253 

Po  R.,  160;    plains,  162.  164-167 

Pocahontas  coalfield,  405 

Poitiers,  88 

Polnisch-Ostrau,  139 

Polye,  141 

Pomerania,  116 

Pont-d-Mousson,  84 

Pontarher,  88 

Pont-Saint-Martin,  167 

Pontus  range,  195 

Poona,  244 

Poplin,  67 

Porman,  178 


552 


INDEX 


Port  Adelaide,  509 
Port  Arthur,  Canada,  394,  395,  396, 
397  ;   Manchuria,  276 

Augusta,  509,  510,  513 

Chalmers,  521 

Darwin,  510 

Elizabeth,  326,  337 

Florence,   321,   322 

Herald,  338 

Kemble,  504 

Nelson,  396 

Pirie,  509,  510 

Said,  315 

Sudan,  318 

Talbot,  60 

Portland,  Maine,  394,  401  ;  Oregon, 
429,  433;  Victoria,  507,  508; 
island,  35 

Portferraio,  170 

Porto  Alegre,  476 

Porto  Rico,  444 

Portugal,  175,  180,  182;  Northern 
Portugal,  180-181  ;  Southern  Por- 
tugal, 181  ;  commerce,  181  ;  com- 
munications,  182 

Posadas,  480 

Posen,  32,  116,  122 

Poshan,  262 

Potato,  25 

Potomac  R.,  405,  407,  432 

Potosi,  460 

Powindas,  219 

Poyang  Lake,  265 

Prague,  123,  138,  148 

Prahova,  151 

Precipitation,  13-14 

Pressburg,  148 

Preston,  54 

Pretoria,  332,  337 

Pribilov  Islands,  430 

Prince  Albert,  383.  395 

Edward  Island,  378 

Rupert,  395 

Providence,  402 
Prussia,    114-118 
Pskov,  185 
Pueblo,  434 

Hundido,  468 

Puerto  Cabello,  456 

Colombia,  458 

Montt,  468 

Suarez,  461 

Velho,  461 

Puget  Sound  valley,  364,  427 

Puket,  251 

Pukow,  265 

Pulses,  25-26 

Punjab,  231-233,  241,  242 

Puno,  464 


Puster-thal,   149 
Pyrenees,  30,  175 

QUANTRI,    255 

Qu'Appelle,  383 

Queanbeyan,  505 

Quebec,  381-3,  395,  399 

Quebracho,  482 

Queensland,  498-500 

Quelimane,  339 

Quetta,  243 

Quicksilver.     Austria,  140 ;    Bolivia, 

464 
Quinua,  463 
Quito,  459 

Rabat,  306 

Racine,  414 

Raibl,  140 

Raichur,  244 

Rajputana,  223,  231-233,  237-238, 
242 

Rakonitz,  137 

Rangoon,  240,  244 

Raniganj,  242 

Ratisbon,  106,  121 

Ratiskowitz,  138 

Rayak,  213 

Red  Basin  of  Szechwan,  265 

Red  Brazil  Wood,  20 

Redditch.  58 

Red  River,  N.  America,  397;  Tong- 
king,  252 

Regina,  395 

Reichenbach,   119,  120 

Reichenberg,  138 

Reims,  86,  88 

Remiremont,  84 

Remscheid,  112 

Renfrew,  44,  45 

Renmark,  509 

Rennes,  81,  88 

Reno,  172 

Resht,  215 

Reutlingen,  109 

Reval,  186 

Rheydt,  112 

Rhine,  101-102;  rift  valley,  106- 
108;  massif,  110-113;  naviga- 
tion, 122-124 

Rhine-Marne  canal,  122 

Rhine- Rhone  canal,  89,  111,  122 

Rhode  Island,  400-403 

Rhodes,  208 

Rhodesia,  Northern,  336 

,  Southern,  334-336;    physical 

features,  334;  climate,  334-335; 
minerals,  335  ;    agriculture,  335 

Rhongebirge,  104,  113 


INDEX 


553 


Rhymney  R.,  60 

Rice,    19;    Italy.    165;    India.   230 
234,   237,   238,240;    Siam.    251 
Cambodia.  253 ;      Annam,     254 
China,  258  ;    Japan.  285  ;    United 
States,  418-9 

Richthofen,  260.  261 

Riesengebirge,  136 

Riff.  305.  306,  307 

Rift  valleys,  African,  299,  318,  319, 
322 

Riga,  185 

Rikuchiu,  287 

Rimini.  171 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  472,  476 

Rio  Negro,  487 

Rio  Tinto  mines.  178 

Risley.  Sir  H.  H..  225 

Rivera,  476 

Riverina.  503 

Rjukanfos.  74 

Roanne.  80.  89 

Roanoke.  421 

Rochefort,  89 

Rockhampton.  502 

Rocks,  Classification  of.  2-3 

Rocky  Mts..  363.  374.  424-5 

Rodney.  506 

Roggeveld,  326 

Rome.  169  ;   Plain  of,  163 

Roros.  74 

Rosario.  485-8 

Rosewood.  20 

Ross  and  Cromarty,  42 

Rossitz,  138.  139 

Rossland.  391,  393 

Rostov-on-Don,  190 

Rotterdam.  100.  101.  102.  121 

Roubaix.  86 

Rouen.  86.  87.  89.  91 

Roumania.  151-153;  physical  fea- 
tures. 151  ;  climate.  151  ;  Carpa- 
thians. 151  ;  Moldavian  plateau. 
152;  Wallachian  plain.  152; 
Dobrudja,  152  ;  general  considera- 
tions, 152-153 

Roumelia  (Eastern),  155 

Ruahine  Chain,  516 

Rubber.   Ceylon,  248  ;  Malay  Penin- 
sula, 249  ;    Java.  293  ;    W.  Africa 
342.  344.  347.  348,  349,  352.  354 
Colombia.    456-7;     Bolivia.    461 
Brazil.  470.  472 

Ruby  Hills.  239 

Rudolf,  Lake,  299 

Ruhr  Coal  Basin,  103,  111;  valley, 
112 

Ruhrort,  122,  123 

Rumburg,  138 


Runcorn,  55 

Rupel  R.,  95.  96 

Russia.  183-192  ;  physical  features, 
30.  183;  climate.  183-184;  na- 
tural regions.  184  ;  Tundra.  185  ; 
Finland.  185  ;  Lake  Region,  185  ; 
Baltic  provinces,  185-6  ;  Northern 
Forest,  186;  Southern  Forest, 
186  ;  Moscow  Industrial  Region, 
186  ;  South-West  Poland,  187  ; 
Black  Soil  region.  187-189  ;  South 
Russia  Industrial  region.  189-190  ; 
Caucasus.  190;  Urals.  191;  wa- 
terways. 191;  railways.  191-2; 
commerce.   192 

.  Asiatic.  200-207  ;  Siberia,  200- 

206  ;  Russian  Central  Asia,  206- 
207 

Rustenburg,  332 

Riiti,  134 

Rye,  25,  33  ;  France,  78  ;  Germany, 
116;    Bohemia,  137;    Russia,  186 


Saale  Valley,  114 

Saarbriicken,  St.  Johann,  111 

Saar  coalfield,  84,  110,   111;     river, 

122 
Saaz,  137 
Sabi  Valley,  339 
Sacramento  Valley,  428 
Safaga,  315 
Safi,  306 
Sahara,  302,  307 
Sahel,  309 
Saigon,  253,  255 
Saint-Die,  84 
Saintes,  89 
St.  Etienne.  80 
St.  Fran9ois  Mts.,  422 
St.  Gallen,  134 
St.  Gertraud,  140 
St.  Gothard  tunnel,  135,  171 
St.  Helens.  55 
St.  John.  381.  394.  398 
St.  Joseph.  412 
St.  Kitts.  444 
St.  Lawrence  R..  394.  396  ;  lowlands, 

372.  381-383 
St.  Leonhard,  140 
St.  Louis,  411,432,  434 
St.  Lucia,  444 
St.  Mary's  R..  387 
St.  Nazaire.  81,  88 
St.  Paul.  394.  433 
St.  Petersburg.  185,  191 
St.  Quentin,  86 
Sakhalin,  205.  281 
Salamanca.  182 


554 


INDEX 


Salina  Cruz,  440 

Salisbury.  334,  335,  336 

Saloniki,  150,  158,  161 

Salta,  482 

Salto,  488 

Salt  Range,  242 

Salvador,   441 

Salwen  R.,  238 

Salzach,  149 

Salzburg,  106,  139-140,  149 

Samara,     Russia,     188,     192,     207  ; 

Mesopotamia,  211 
Samaria,  210 
Samarkand,  206,  207 
Sambhar,  Lake,  242 
Sambre  R.,  89,  96 
Samos,  208 
Samshui,  273 
San  Bernardino  Mts.,  434 
San  Cristobal,  488 
San  Francisco,  429,  433,  434 
San  Joaquin  Valley,  428 
San  Juancito,  442 
San  Salvador,  472 
San  Sebastian,  182 
Santa  Cruz,  461 

Fe,  482,  484-6 

Santander,  176,  182 

Santiago,  Spain,    182;    Cuba,   443; 
Chile,  468 

del  Estero,  482 

Santo  Domingo,  444 
Santorin,  160 

Sao  Domingos,  181 

Saone  R.,  89 

Sao  Paulo,  474,  475,  476 

Sao  Thome,  355 

Saragossa,  178,  182 

Sarajevo,  149.  150 

Sardinia,  163,  164 

S  arret,  144 

Saskatchewan,  383-388;    river.  397 

Saskatoon,  394.  395 

Sauaipe,  140 

Sauerland.  103.  110 

Sault  Ste.  Marie.  377,  394;    canal, 

396.  435 
Saumur,  89 
Savanna,  16 
Savannah.  419 
Save  R.,  148,  161 
Savona,  168,  171 
Saxony,  115 

Sayan  Mts.,  196,  200,  202 
Scandinavia,    29,    72-76 ;     physical 

features,  72  ;    climate,  72 ;    flora, 

72-3;    railways.  76 
Scania,  72.  75 
Schantung  Bergbau  Gesellschaft,  262 


Scheldt  R..  89,  96,  97 

Schiedam,  101 

Schlan.    137 

Schleswig.  114 

Schneidemiihl,  122 

Schweidnitz,  120 

Scotland,  29,  34,  41,  42-48  ;  North 
ern  Highlands,  34,  41,  42-43 
Central  Lowlands,  34,  41,  43-48 
Southern  Uplands.  34.  41.  48 

Scytho-Dravidian  Peoples.  226 

Seattle,  429,  433  , 

Sebu  Plain.  305.  306 

Seistan.  195 

Seine  R,.  89 

Sekondi.  343 

S clangor,  249 

Selkirk.  48 

Range.  363,  389 

Selmeczbanya,  145 
Semarang,  293 
Semipalatinsk,  200 
Semirechensk,  206 
Semliki  R.,  311 
Semlin,  148 
Semmering  Pass.  149 
Seneca  R..  435 
Senegal.  346-347 

and  Niger.  Upper,  348-349 

Sennar,  317.  318 

Senones.  84 
Seoul,  280 
Seriphos.  160 
Serra  da  Caveira.  181 

do  Mantiqueira,  447 

do  Espinhago,  447 

do  Mar.  447 

Serres,  158 

Servia,  156-158,  161  ;    Old,  154,  157 

Serviceton,  508,  510 

Setubal,  181 

Seville,  178,  182 

Seward  Peninsula,  430 

Sfax,  310 

Shanghai,  257,  268,  270 

Shanhaikwan,  263,  264 

Shan  Plateau,  238 

Shansi.  256.  260-263 

Shan  States.  239 

Shantung.  256.  260-263 

Shaochow-fu.  272 

Shardagh.  154 

Sharon  Plain,  210 

Shasi,  269 

Sheep.    Scotland,  42.  48  ;    England 
49 ;     Spain.    177 ;     Cape    Colony 
327;     Orange    Free    State.    330 
Transvaal.      331  ;      Chile,      468 
Paraguay,    479 ;    Uruguay,    48 1 


INDEX 


555 


Sheep  (cont.) — 

Argentine,  486,  487 ;  Australia, 
500,  503.  506,  507,  508,  512 ;  New 
Zealand,  519-21 

Sheffield,  52 

Shenandoah  R.,  362 

Shensi,  260-263 

Shikoku,  281,  283 

Shilka  R.,  206 

Shimonoseki,  290 

Shipbuilding.  Scotland,  46-47 ; 
England,  50,  56 ;  Ireland,  66  ; 
Germany,  118;  Austria,  141; 
Spain,  176  ;   Japan,  288. 

Shiraz.  216,  217,  218 

Shire  R.,  337 

Shotts  Plateau,  305.  306 

Shropshire  coalfield,  59 

Siam,  249-252 ;  physical  features, 
249-250;  climate,  250;  Upper 
Siam,  250-251  ;  Lower  Siam,  251  ; 
Plateau  of  Korat,  251  ;  Malay 
States,  251  ;  communications,  251- 
252  ;    commerce,  252 

Sianfu,  263 

Siang-kiang  Basin,  265,  269 

Siberia,  199,  200-206;  physical 
features,  200  ;  climate,  200  ;  vege- 
tation, 200  ;  natural  regions,  200- 
202  ;  forest  region  of  west,  202  ; 
Park  steppe,  202-203;  steppe, 
203-204  ;  Altai  and  Sayan  region, 
204;  Eastern  Siberia,  204-205; 
communications,   205-206 

Sicily,  163,  170 

Siegerland,  111 

Sierra  de  Gredos.  174 

de  Guadarrama.    174,    182 

Leone.  341-342 

Madre  Occidental.  364,  436 

Oriental,  364,  436 

Morena,  174,  175,  178 

Nevada.  174.  175,  178 

Sikkim,  277 

Silesia,  114-118;    Upper,  120 

Silk     (manufactured).     France,     80, 

83  ;   Switzerland,  134  ;   Italy,  166, 

170  ;  India,  241  ;  China.  263,  272  ; 

Japan.    288  ;    United  States.  408. 

(raw).      France.   82;     Austria. 

141  ;  Turkey,  158-9  ;  Italv,  165, 
170;  Syria,  210;  Persia,  215; 
China,  262,  266,  272  ;    Japan,  286 

Sil  Valley,  182 

Silver.  Canada,  377  ;   United  States, 

424,     425,     427;     Mexico,     438; 

Colombia,  457  ;    Bolivia,  463-4 
Simplon  tunnel,  135,  171 
Sind.  232.  242 


Singapore,  249 

Singareni,  242 

Sining-fu,  277 

Sinkiang,  276-7 

Sinope,  209 

Sinu  Valley,  457 

Sisal  Hemp,  439 

Sissek,  148 

Sittang  R.,  238 

Siwaliks,  228 

Skagway,  393,  430 

Skeena  basin,  395 

Skjaergaard,  73 

Slavonia.  143 

Smyrna,  32,  208,  209,  213 

Sobat  R.,  311,312.  319 

Soest,  121 

Sofia,  155,  161 

Soils,  4 

Solingen,  112 

Solnhofen,  108 

Somaliland,  320 

Song-Koi  Basin,  252,  254,  255 

Sorghum  viclgare,  23 

Sosnowice,   187 

Sotteville,  86 

South  America,  447-488  ;  physical 
fe^ures,  447-449  ;  cHmate,  450- 
45^2^  vegetation,  452-453 ;  coun- 
tries of,  454-489 

Southampton,  64,  71 

South  Australia,  508-510 

Carolina,    415-419 

Dakota,  409-415.  422 

Omaha.  412 

William's  Canal.  102 

Soya  beans,  25-26,  274 

Spain,  175-180;  north-west  coast, 
174-176  ;  Meseta,  176-177  ;  South- 
ern Spain,  177-8  ;  Mediterranean 
region,  178 ;  Ebro  basin,  179 ; 
Pyrenean  region.  179  ;  commerce, 
179-180 ;   communications.    182 

Spartanburg.  421 

Sperenberg.    117 

Spessart,  107.  108 

Spezia.  168 

Spree  R..  115 

Springfontein,  337 

Spokane.  433 

Springfield.  414 

Springs,  332 

Staffordshire  coalfields.  57,  58 

Stalybridge.  54 

Stanovoi  Mts..  196,  200 

Stara-Zagora,  155 

Stassfurt,  114;  salts,  117.  125 

Stavropol.  188 

Stefanau.  139 


35— (1326) 


556 


INDEX 


Steinschonau,  138 

Stendal,  121 

Steppe,  17 

Sternberg,  139 

Stettin,  118,  122.  127 

Stewart  Island,  516 

Steyr,  141 

Stillingia  sebifera,  267 

Stipa  tenacissima,  308 

Stirling  coalfield,  44,  45 

Stockholm,  76 

Stockton,  50 

Stonehouse,  44 

Stormberg,  326 

Stourbridge,  58 

Straits  Settlements,  249 

Stralsund,  122 

Strassburg,  88,  107,  122 

Strathcona,  394 

Strathmore,  44 

Stroud,  62 

Struma  R.,  154 

Sturgeon  Falls,  377 

Stuttgart,  109.  121 

Styria,  139-140 

Suakin,  318 

Subiaco,  169 

Sucre,  461 

Sudan,  Anglo-Egyptian,  18,  302, 
316-318 

Sudbury,  394  ;   mines,  377 

Sudetes,  105,  136,  139 

Suez  Canal,  315 

Suffolk,  63 

Sugar.  Holland,  100  ;  Germany,  117  ; 
Austria,  137  ;  Spain,  177  ;  Russia, 
189;  Formosa,  289;  Natal,  329; 
United  States,  419,  426;  West 
Indies,  443,  444  ;  Colombia,  456  ; 
Peru,  462;  Australia,  501,  504 

Sugar-cane,   19-20 

Sulaiman  Mts.,  195,  220 

Sulphur,  170 

Sumatra,  196,  292,  293 

Sunda  Islands,  292,  294 

Sunderland,  50 

Sungari  R.,  274 

Siintel,  105 

Superior,  413,  435 

Surabaya,  293 

Surat,  234 

Surma  R.,  230  ;  valley,  244 

Susquehanna  R.,  407,  432 

Sutherland,  42 

Swabian  Jura,  103,  108 

Swakopmund,  340 

Swan  Hill,  508 

Swan  R.,  512 

Swansea,  60,  61 


Sweden.  Physical  features,  72; 
climate,  72 ;  economic  activities, 
74-76 

Switzerland,  132-135  ;  physical  fea- 
tures, 132;  climate,  132-133; 
Alpine  region,  133  ;  Central  pla- 
teau, 133-134;  Jura,  134;  com- 
munications, 134-135  ;  commerce, 
135 

Sydney.  N.S.,  380,  399  ;  coalfield, 
380  ;    N.S.W.,  504.  505,  508 

Syr-Daria,  206,  207 

Syria,  210-211  ;    railways,  213 

Szechwan,  256,  265-270 

Tabbas,  216 

Table  Bay,  326 

Tabora,  324 

Tabriz,  215,  218 

Tacoma,  429,  433 

Taff  R.,  60 

Taganrog.  190 

Tagus  R.,  181 

Taiyuen,  261,  263,  264 

Takau,  289,  290 

Talcahuano,  468 

Tali-fu,  273 

Tallow  Tree,  267 

Taltal,  466 

Tampico,  439,  440 

Tamsui,  289 

Tanana  Valley,  430 

Tanga,  323 

Tanganyika,  Lake,  299 

Tangla  Pass,  277 

Tanjong  Priok,  293 

Taokow,  264 

Taranto,  170 

Tarchendo,  277 

Tarim  basin,  196,  276 

Tarnowitz  Plateau,  120 

Tarragona.  182 

Tasili  Plateau,  299 

Tasmania.  513-514 

Tatra,  143 

Taunus,  103,  110 

Taurus  Range,  195 

Tayibai,  317 

Tea,  20-21;  India,  230,  234;  Cey- 
lon, 247-8  ;  China,  266,  270,  272  ; 
Japan,  286  ;  Java,  292-3  ;  Natal, 
329 

Teak,  20 ;    India,  239  ;   Siam,  250 

Tebessa,  307 

Teheran,  216,  217,  218 

Tell,  Algerian,  307-309 

Temperature,  Inversions  of,  12 

Tenasserim,  223 

Tennessee,  415-421  ;  river,  362 


INDEX 


557 


Tengyueh,  273 

Terneuzen  Canal,  95,  97 

Terni,  168 

Teschen,  139 

Teutoburger  Range,  105,  113 

Texada  Island,  392 

Texas.  415-419,  434 

Thalghat,  243 

Thann,    107 

Thar  desert,  228,  233 

Thessaly,  154 

Thiers,  80 

Thorn,  122 

Thrace,  154,  157 

Thraco-Macedonian  Region,  154 

Thuringian  Basin,  105  ;    Forest,  108 

Tian  Shan,  196,  277 

Tiber  R.,  172  ;    basin,  163 

Tibesti  Hills,  299 

Tibet,  196,  277 

TicinoR.,  166,  171 

Tiehshanpu,  267 

Tientsin,  262,  263,  264,  276 

Tientsin-Pukow  Railway,  265 

T terra  caliente,  436,  441 

fria.  436,  441 

• templada,  436,  441 

Tiflis,  218 

Tigris,  198,  211 

Timber.  Norway,  73  ;  Sweden,  75  ; 
Germany,  107 ;  Siberia,  205  ; 
N.  America,  368-70;  Canada, 
376-7,  390;  United  States,  414, 
428 

Timor,  292 

Tin.  Malay  Peninsula,  249  ;  Siam, 
251  ;  China,  272  ;  Nigeria,  345-6  ; 
Australia,  500-2 

Tin-plate,  60 

Tintic  Range,  427 

Tiumen,  191,  205 

TivoH,  168 

Tobacco,  22-23;  Austria,  141  ;  Bul- 
garia, 155  ;  Turkey,  158-9  ;  Greece, 
159  ;  Persia,  216  ;  S.  Rhodesia, 
335  ;  United  States,  420 ;  West 
Indies,  443 

Tobago,  444 

TobolR.,205 

Toce   R.,    171 

Tocopilla,  466 

Tokachi  Valley,  284,  285 

Tokar,  316     , 

Tokay.  143 

Tokio,  288,  290 

Tolima,  457 

Tom  R..  204 

Tomaszow,  187 

Tongking,  254-255 


Tonopah,  427 

Toowomba,  502 

Topeka,  410 

Topino,  172 

Toronto,  381,  382,  383,  394 

Torrens,  Lake,  509 

Toule-Sap,  Lake,  253 

Toulouse,  88 

Tourcoing,  86 

Tournai,  95,  96 

Tours,  88 

Townsville,  501,  502 

Tragowel  Plains,  506 

Trail  Creek.  391 

Trans-Caspia,  207 

Transkei  Territories,  327 

Transvaal,    325,    330-332;    physical 

features,    330 ;     natural    regions, 

331-332 
Transylvania,  143,  144,  145 
Trautenau,  138 
Treadwell  District,  430 
Trebizond,  209,  218 
Trengganu,  249 
Treves,   121 
Trieste,  141,  149,  150 
Trifail,  140 
Trinidad,  444 
Tripoli,  213,  310 
Trofaiach,  140 
Trondhjem,  74,  76 
Troon,  44 
Tropophytes,  15 
Troppau,  139 
Troyes,  88 
Truckee  Pass,  433 
Truxillo,  442 
Tse-kiang  Basin,  265 
Tsientang,  271 
Tsinau-fu,  264,  265 
Tsingtau,  263,  264 
Tsin-ling  Mts.,  196,  256 
Tsukushi  Plain,  281 
Tsumeb,  340 
Tuaregs,  303 
Tucuman,  487,  488 
Tungting,  Lake,  265 
Tunis,  305,  309-310 
Tura,  205 
Turan,  254.  255 
Turfan,  277 
Turin,  167,  171 
Turkestan,  Eastern,  276-277 
Turkey  in  Asia,  208-13 
in  Europe,  157-159  ;     political 

divisions,     157 ;      Albania,     158 ; 

Thraco-Macedonian    region,     158; 

Basin  of  Adrianople,  158 
Turko-Iranian  Peoples,  226 


558 


INDEX 


Turtle  Mountain,  388 
Tuscany,  163,  168 
Tuticorin,  238 
Twenthe,  101 
Two  Harbours,  413 
Tyrol,   139-40 
Tyrone,  65,  66 
Tyrrhenia,  163,  170 

Udine,   167 

Uganda,  318-319  ;   railway,  319,  322 

Ulm,  106,  121 

Ulster,  65,  66 

Umbria,  163,    168 

Ungava,  377 

United  Kingdom,  34-71  ;  physical 
features,  34-36;  climate,  36-39; 
general  considerations,  39-4 1  ;  na- 
tural regions,  41-68 ;  foreign 
trade,  68-71  ;    ports,  71 

Provinces,  229,  231,  232 

States,  361-375,  400-435  ;  phy- 
sical features,  361-364;  climate, 
364-368;  vegetation,  368-371; 
natural  regions,  373-375 ;  New 
England,  400-403 ;  Middle  Appa- 
lachian states,  403-409 ;  north 
central  region,  409-415  ;  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  coastal  plain,  415-419  ; 
Southern  Appalachian  region,  419- 
421  ;  Ozark  plateau,  421-2 ; 
Great  plateaus,  422-3 ;  Western 
Cordillera,  423 ;  Rocky  Moun- 
tain region,  424-5 ;  Columbia 
plateau,  425-6 ;  Basin  Ranges, 
426-7  ;  Pacific  slope,  426-428  ; 
Alaska,  429-30;  commerce,  430- 
432 ;  communications,  432-435 

Unstrut,   114 

Unzmarkt,   149 

Ural  Mountains,  183,  191 

Urga,  206,  263,  278 

Urmia,  Lake,  215 

Uruguay,  480-481  ;  river,  488 

Urumtsi,  277 

UsagaraMts.,  323 

Usambara  Mts.,  323 

Uskub,  158,  161 

Uspallata,  469,  487 

Ussuri  R.,  204,  205,  206 

Ustron,  139 

Utah,   426-427 

Utrecht,  32,  99,  101,  102 

Uvac,  149,  150 

Uyuni,  461 

Valais,  133 

Valdivia,  468 

Valencia,  174,  178.  179,  182 


Valenciennes,  86 

Valladolid,  177,  182 

Val  Leventine,  171 

Valparaiso,  468 

ValtelHna,  164 

Val  Trompia,  164 

Vancouver,  City,  393,  394,  399 ; 
Island,  389-393 

Vardar  R..  154;    valley,  161 

Variscan  Range,  29 

Varna,  161 

Vegetable  ivory,  459 

Vegetation,  13-26 

Veld,  High,  300,  325,  326,  329-332 

Veluwe,  99 

Venern,  Lake,  76 

Venezuela,  454-456 ;  physical  fea- 
tures, 454  ;  climate,  454  ;  tropical 
lowlands,  454 ;  sub-tropical  up- 
lands, 454-455  ;  Llanos,  455  ; 
Guiana  Highlands,  455  ;  minerals, 
455 ;     communications,   455-456 

Venice,  167,  171 

Vera  Cruz,  440 

Vereeniging,  330 

Verkhoyansk,  198 

Vermilion  Range,  413 

Vermont,  400-403 

Verona,  149,  171 

Verviers,  94,  96 

Viacha,  461 

Viborg,  191 

Vichy,  80 

Victoria,  Australia,  505-8 

,  British  Columbia,  390,  393,  399, 

497 

Falls,  336  ;    Nyanza,  311 

Vieille  Montagne,  94 
Vienna,  122,  141,  148 

Vigo,  182 
Villach,  149 
Villa  Bocage,  338 

Encarnacion,  480 

Vilna,    191 

Vine,  33;  France,  81-2,  85;  Ger- 
many, 107,  108,  110;  Austria, 
140,141;  Hungary,  144;  Turkey, 
158  ;  Italy,  164,  168-170  ;  Spain, 
177,  178,  179  ;  Portugal,  180,  181  ; 
Anatolia,  209  ;  Syria,  211  ;  Cape 
Colony,  327 

Vinh,  255 

Virginia,  415-419 

Vistula  R.,  115,  123,  191 

Vitebsk,  185 

Vitimsk,  205 

Vitry,  88 

Vizagapatam,  244 

Vizcayo,  176 


INDEX 


559 


Vizzola,  166 
Vladivostok,  206,  276 
Vogelsgebirge,  105,  113 
Vogtland,  118 
Voitsberg,  140 
Volcano  Bay,  285 
Volga,  191 
Volo,  160 
Volta  R.,  343 
Vorarlberg,  139-140 
Vordernberg,   140 
Vosges,  29.  84.  103,  107 
Vuelta  Abajo,  443 

Waal.  102 

Wabana  Mines,  380.  399 

Wady  Haifa,  312.  317 

Wahsatch  Mts..  363,  425 

Wairau  Plain.  520 

Wakamatsu.  288 

Wakkerstroom,  331 

Wald,    134 

Waldenburg  coalfield,   119 

Wales,  34-41;  rainfall,  38;  natural 

regions,    59-61  ;    coalfields,  59,  60 
Walfish  Bay.  340 
Wallachian  Plain,  151,  152 
Wallaroo,  509,  510 
Walsall,  58 
Wanhsien,  269 
Wankie  coalfield,  335 
Warora,  242 
Warrington.  55 
Warrior  coalfield,  420 
Warsaw,  32,  122,  187,  191 
Warthe  R.,  115,  121  ;    valley,  116 
Warwickshire  coalfield,  58 
Washington,      425-426,      427-428 ; 

D.C.,  432 
Watch-making,  Switzerland,  134 
Waterbury,  Transvaal,  330,  331 

,  Conn.,  403 

Waterford,  68 

.  N.Y..  435 

Wattle,  British  East  Africa,  322 

,  Natal,  329 

Wax  Tree,  267 
Weald,  63 
Weardale,  56 
Wei  R.,  264;   valley,  261 
Weihsien,  262 
Weissenfels,  114 
Welland  Canal,  396 
Wellingborough,  62 
Welhngton,   523 
Werdau,  118 
Werfen,  140 
Wesel,  101 
Weser  R..  122 


West  Bromwich,  58 
West  Calder,  46 
Westerwald,  103,  110,  111 
West  Indies,  443-444 

;   River,  272 

I  Virginia,  403-410 

I   Western  Australia,  510-513 

Wetterau,  113 
I   Whangpoo  R.,  270 
I   Whampoa,  273 

;   Wheat,  23-25,  33  ;  Scotland,  42-43 
I       England,    63;     France,    81,    85 
;        Germany,     116;      Austria,     137 
I        Hungary,     145-146;      Roumania 
152;  Italy,  169-170;  Spain,  177 
Russia,  188-9  ;  Siberia,  202  ;  India 
232,  235  ;    Algeria,    308  ;     Egypt 
315;     Orange    Free    State,    330 
Canada,  384-7,  389,  391;  United 
States,  410-11,  426,  428;  Argen- 
tine, 484-5  ;  Australia,  500,  506, 
509,  512 
Whitehaven,  56 
White  Horse,  393,  430 

Pass,  393 

Widnes,  55 
Wiehen  Gebirge,  113 
Wieliczka,  142 
Wiesbaden,  110 
Wigtown,  48 

Willcocks,  Sir  William.  212 
WiUiamette  Valley,  428 
WilHamsport,  432 
Wilhamstown,  507 
Windau.   186 

Winds.  7-11 
Windward  Islands,  444 
Winnipeg.  383.  388.  394,  395,  396 

Basin,  372-3,  383-388 

Winterthur,   134 
Wipp-thal,  149 
Wisconsin,  409-415 
Wishaw,  46 

Witbank,  332 

Witkowitz,  138,  139 

Witney,    62 

Witwatersrand,  332 

Woina  Dega,  319 

Wolfram.    181 

Wolverhampton.  58 

Wood  Creek,  435 

Woodland.   16 

Wood  Mts.,  388 

pulp.      Norway,  73  ;    Canada, 

377,  382;    Newfoundland,  399     , 

Woollen  manufactures.  Scotland, 
47;  England,  51-52.  62;  Sweden, 
76  ;  France.  86  ;  Germany,  1 19, 
120 ;      Austria,     138,     140,     141  ; 


560 


INDEX 


Woollen  manufactures  (cont.) — 
Italy,  167 ;    Spain,  179 ;    Russia, 
187;     India,   241;     China,   262; 
United  States,  402,  408 

Worcester,  58,  59 

Workington,  56 

Wuchang,  268 

Wuchow,  272,  273 

Wuhu,  269 

Wupperthal,  114 

Wiirtemberg,  108 

Wiirzburg,  108,  109,  121,  122 

Wyalong,  503,  505 

Wyoming,  424-425 

Xanthi,  159 
Xerophytes,  15 

Yablonoi  Mts.,  196,  200 

Yakima  Valley,  432 

Yale,  391 

Yarkand,  276 

Yarrawonga,  508 

Yellowhead  Pass,  395 

Yellowstone  R,,  433 

Yemen,  213 

Yangtse  Engineering  Works,  268 

Yerba  Mate.  Brazil,  475  ;  Paraguay, 
479-80  ;    Argentine,  482 

Yezd,  217,  218 

Yezo.  281 

Ymuiden,  102 

Yokohama,  291 

Yonne  R.,  89 

York,  Derby,  and  Nottingham  coal- 
field, 35,  50,  51 

,  East  Riding,  63 

Yorke  Peninsula.  509 


Yorkshire  Moors,  35 
Youghiogheny  R.,  432 
Youngstown,  408,  414 
Yuan-kiang  Basin,  265 
Yucatan,  439 
Yukon  Basin,  363,  373 
Yunnan,  256,  271-4 
Yunnanfu,  255,  273 
Yvetot.  86 


Zaccar,  308 

Zagazig,  315 

Zagros  Mts.,  195 

Zambesi  Valley,  336 

Zante,  160 

Zanzibar  Protectorate,  324 

Zealand,  129 

Zeehan,  513 

Zeeland,  99 

Zeerust,  337 

Zeiski,  205 

Zeitz,  114 

Zemstvos,  189 

Zerafshan,  206 

Zero-point,  16 

Zeyla,  320 

Zinc.     Germany,   120;  Spain,   178 

United  States,  422 
Zoptau,  139 

Zoutpansberg,  330,  331,  332 
Zugspitze,  105 
Zuider  Zee,  102 
Zulus,  304 
Zungeru,  344 
Zurich,  134,  135 
Zwartebergen,  326 
Zwickau,  118 


THE   END 


Printed  by  Sir  Isaac  Pitman  &  Sons,  Ltd.,  Bath 
p— (1326) 


Ss  BOOK  IS  DTJB  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
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THIS  BOOK  "-^  J"fJi*;LTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
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m 


8  1933 


RF.C'D  LD 

JUL  1 4  1961 


FEB   18  ipsfjECl  3  1985 
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ffCCW- 


NOV  2  3  1986 


NOV 


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JUL   221&41 


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